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The tendency towards socio-economic homogamy - partner similarity in terms of socio-economic status - is of great interest to social scientists, for two reasons. First, socio-economic homogamy is an indicator of social closure between status groups in a society. Second, given that homogamy leads to the accumulation of advantageous and disadvantageous socio-economic conditions within couples, it also intensifies social and economic inequalities between families. The objective of this thesis is to enhance knowledge of socio-economic homogamy and its consequences for union stability in Finland. The first aim was to analyse the strength and patterns of socio-economic homogamy in partner choice. The second aim was to determine whether and, if so, how homogamy is associated with the likelihood of ending non-marital cohabitation - through separation on the one hand, or marriage on the other. In addition, two dimensions of socio-economic status, individual educational attainment and social class of the family of origin, were analysed to find out whether matching on individually achieved status or on the status of the parental family had a bigger effect on union dynamics. The analyses were based on sets of register data compiled at Statistics Finland. Log-linear models were applied to study homogamy tendencies and their changes in marriages and cohabitations of women born in 1957-1979 at the age of 30. The effects of homogamy and heterogamy on the likelihood of separation and marriage were analysed with Cox proportional hazards model in cohabitations formed in the period 1995-2002 by women born in 1960-1977. An elaborate approach was adopted: marriage and separation rates were examined in each possible combination of partner status. The results imply that people tend to choose partners who are similar to them in terms of educational attainment and class background. However, homogamy was stronger with regard to education than to social-class origins. This is line with the view that boundaries based on achieved status are more difficult to cross in modern, individualized societies than boundaries based on social origins. The most highly educated - those with a higher university degree - were particularly strongly inclined towards homogamy. The general strength of homogamy did not change much across the birth cohorts from the late 1950s to the 1970s, but the trends differed depending on the level of education: homogamy strengthened among those with a low level of education, and weakened among the highly educated. The results also indicate that in the absence of homogamy, women increasingly tend to have partners whose level of education is lower than theirs. Homogamy in class background had a relatively weak influence on the stability of cohabiting unions. Homogamy increased the marriage rate among the children of farmers, whereas heterogamy was associated with an increased separation risk when one partner came from a farmer family and the other from an upper-white-collar family. Educational differences played a somewhat more significant role in these transitions. Homogamy was associated with a reduced risk of separation among the most highly educated cohabitors in particular. The effects of educational homogamy on the marriage rate were less consistent: homogamy increased the marriage rate among cohabitors with a basic-level education, but reduced it among the most highly educated. The findings reveal that status barriers and cultural differences are of significance in partner choice and the stability of cohabiting unions in Finland, and that group boundaries based on achieved status are stronger than those based on ascribed status in terms of union dynamics. Sosioekonominen homogamia - puolison valitseminen samasta sosioekonomisesta ryhmästä - on yhteiskunnallisesti merkittävä tutkimuskohde pääasiassa kahdesta syystä. Sosioekonomista homogamiaa voidaan ensinnäkin pitää osoituksena statusryhmien välisestä sosiaalisesta sulkeutuneisuudesta. Toiseksi, homogamia johtaa hyväosaisuuden ja toisaalta huono-osaisuuden kasaantumiseen perheissä, ja kasvattaa siten sosiaalista ja taloudellista eriarvoisuutta perheiden välillä. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli tutkia sosioekonomista homogamiaa ja sen yhteyttä liiton kestävyyteen Suomessa. Ensimmäisenä tavoitteena oli tarkastella, esiintyykö puolisonvalinnassa homogamiaa ja onko homogamiataipumuksissa tapahtunut muutoksia viime vuosikymmeninä. Toisena tavoitteena oli tutkia, miten puolisoiden samankaltaisuus tai erilaisuus vaikuttaa todennäköisyyteen, että avoliitto päättyy - joko parin erilleen muuttoon tai avioitumiseen. Sosioekonomisen aseman mittareina käytettiin sekä omaa koulutustasoa että lapsuuden perheen sosiaaliluokkaa. Näin voitiin tarkastella, onko samankaltaisuus saavutetun aseman vai sosioekonomisen perhetaustan mukaan tärkeämpää liittojen solmimisessa ja purkautumisessa. Tutkimusaineistona oli Tilastokeskuksessa muodostettu rekisteriaineisto. Homogamiataipumusten ja niiden muutosten tarkasteluun käytettiin vuosina 1957-1979 syntyneiden naisten avo- ja avioliittoja heidän ollessaan 30-vuotiaita. Homogamian yhteyttä avoliittojen purkautumisen todennäköisyyteen tutkittiin vuosina 1960-1977 syntyneiden naisten jaksolla 1995-2002 solmimissa avoliitoissa. Tulosten mukaan suomalaisilla on taipumus valita puoliso samasta sosioekonomisesta ryhmästä. Homogamia oli kuitenkin voimakkaampaa koulutusasteen kuin lapsuuden perheen sosiaaliluokan mukaan. Tulos on yhdenmukainen sen oletuksen kanssa, että nykyaikaisissa yhteiskunnissa saavutetun aseman mukaiset luokkarajat ovat jyrkempiä kuin perhetaustaan liittyvät luokkarajat. Korkeimmin koulutetut - ylemmän korkea-asteen tutkinnon suorittaneet - olivat kaikkein taipuvaisimpia homogamiaan. Homogamiataipumuksissa ei tapahtunut yleisellä tasolla suuria muutoksia 1950-luvun lopulla syntyneistä 1970-luvulla syntyneisiin, mutta koulutusryhmien välillä oli eroja: homogamia heikentyi korkeasti koulutettujen keskuudessa, ja voimistui vähän koulutetuilla. Homogamian ohella naisilla osoittautui olevan taipumus valita yhä useammin puolisoksi mies, jonka koulutusaste on matalampi kuin itsellä. Lapsuuden perheen sosiaaliluokan mukaisella samankaltaisuudella oli vain vähän vaikutusta avoliiton pysyvyyteen. Homogamia oli yhteydessä suurempaan avioitumisen todennäköisyyteen maataloustaustaisilla avopuolisoilla, kun taas maataloustaustaisten ja ylemmistä toimihenkilöperheistä tulevien henkilöiden välisillä avoliitoilla oli kohonnut eroon päättymisen riski. Puolisoiden koulutuserojen merkitys oli jonkin verran suurempi. Homogamia oli yhteydessä pienempään eroriskiin erityisesti korkeasti koulutetuilla. Koulutushomogamia lisäsi avioitumisen todennäköisyyttä pelkän perusasteen koulutuksen saaneilla avopareilla, kun taas korkeasti koulutetuilla avopareilla homogamia oli yhteydessä pienempään avioitumisen todennäköisyyteen. Tutkimus osoittaa, että puolisoiden sosioekonomisella samankaltaisuudella on merkitystä sekä liitonmuodostuksessa että avoliittojen pysyvyydessä Suomessa, ja että saavutetun aseman mukainen samankaltaisuus on tärkeämpää kuin sosioekonomisen perhetaustan mukainen samankaltaisuus.

The clinical material for this study of female fantasies stems from a specific psychoanalytical situation where the analyst and the analysand are pregnant at the same time. The impact of this situation is powerful. The emergence of archaic fantasies is facilitated in transference and countertransference. Fantasies of damage to the baby or to the procreative function may emerge very vividly in the double pregnancy setting and working through these fantasies becomes possible. It is suggested that these fantasies are typical female castration fantasies and manifest the fear of the mother's revenge and punishment for forbidden oedipal wishes. The double pregnancy setting may sensitize the analyst to her pregnant analysand's unconscious communication and yet blind the analyst in some areas to the protection of her own baby. The duality of phallic strivings in the girl's psychosexual development is discussed. They may be employed as a defense against specific feminine anxieties, such as fear of retaliatory atta...

This study analyzes how the socioeconomic positions of cohabiting partners affect the transition to marriage by using information on both partners characteristics. The study uses a register-based data set compiled at Statistics Finland. The study population consists of 3,648 women born in 1966-1971 who were in a cohabiting union in January 1996, and who continued to cohabit or married their cohabiting partner during the period 1996-2003. Transition to marriage was analyzed with Cox regression model. Several control variables were included. As in previous studies, a favourable socioeconomic position encouraged marriage, as marriage rate increased with higher levels of education and income. Partners relative positions also had importance, since marriage rate was low when the female partner had high and the male partner low income, and the male partners unemployment discouraged marriage especially when the female partner had no unemployment. Marriage rate was low when both partners were studying

The article studies to what extent regional socioeconomic and cultural characteristics explain spatial patterns in the Second Demographic Transition in Finland. The country's 75 functional regions are used as area units. A summary indicator of the transition based on divorce and cohabitation is used as the dependent variable. The results show that the spatial pattern is mainly determined according to the regional level of urbanization, but the effect is mediated by cultural characteristics (secularization and support for the socialist and green parties). The cultural characteristics have only a modest independent effect. 1. Introduction This paper was inspired by the studies conducted by Lesthaeghe and Neels (2002) and Lesthaeghe and Neidert (2006) on the determinants of the spatial patterns in demographic transitions in three European countries and the United States. The former study was based on data covering French departements, Belgian arrondissements and Swiss cantons, and analyzed the associations between the indicators of the first and second transitions with historical and contemporary socioeconomic and cultural covariates. The indicators for the second transition were somewhat different in the three countries, and included the divorce rate, non-marital fertility and cohabitation. Most of the explanatory variables (17 from 22 in all countries together) were cultural indicators pertaining to the waves of secularization, voting results, and linguistic divisions. The data included two socioeconomic covariates for France and Belgium and one for Switzerland. Lesthaeghe and Neels (2002) used canonical correlation analysis and found a clear statistical association between indicators of both the first and second demographic transitions and cultural characteristics. The authors presumed that urbanity, high levels of education, and high levels of female labor-force participation would be among the structural predictors for the second transition. This was found to hold best in Switzerland, where the transition was most clearly connected with urbanity and economic development. The link was much weaker in France, and virtually absent in Belgium. In France, both demographic transitions were strongly related to the overall secularization dimension, but both the demographically innovative part of France and areas that were demographic followers contained rural and urban/industrial areas. According to the results for Belgium, the rural-urban distinction in the later 20th century played no role whatsoever in the indicators of the Second Demographic Transition (SDT). In all three countries the link between the ideational (cultural) covariates and both transitions was strikingly pronounced. The explanation, according to the authors, is that the secularization dimension, as it emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries, maintained its spatial features until at least the 1960s, and that further ideational developments related to individual autonomy were grafted onto it. Lesthaeghe and Neidert's (2006) study identified the second-demographictransition dimension in the United States by means of a factor analysis of 19 demographic characteristics of states. The transition factor turned out to be strongly correlated with a high level of income and urbanization, a high proportion of Catholics, and a high proportion of adults with at least a college degree. However, the main finding of the study was a still stronger correlation between this factor and the vote for George W. Bush in two presidential elections. Controlling for the effects of the socioeconomic characteristics, the religious affiliations and the ethnic compositions of the populations of the states did not explain this association. According to Lesthaeghe, Neidert and Surkyn (2007), both economic and cultural factors are necessary for a multi-factorial explanation of the Second Demographic Transition, but their respective weights and roles may vary across societies. …