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The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), also known as Industry 4.0, empowers manufacturing and production processes by leveraging automation and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. In IIoT, the information communication technologies enabled by IoT could greatly improve the efficiency and timeliness of information exchanges between both vertical and horizontal system integrations. Likewise, machine learning algorithms, particularly Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL), are viable for assisting in automated control of complex IIoT systems, with the support of distributed edge computing infrastructure. Despite noticeable performance improvements, the security threats brought by massive interconnections in IoT and the vulnerabilities of deep neural networks used in DRL must be thoroughly investigated and mitigated before widespread deployment. Thus, in this paper we first design a DRL-based controller that could be deployed at edge computing server to enable automated control in an IIoT context. We then investigate malicious behaviors of adversaries with two attacks: (i) function-based attacks that can be launched during training phase and (ii) performance-based attacks that can be launched after training phase, to study the security impacts of vulnerable DRL-based controllers. From the adversary’s perspective, maximum entropy Inverse Reinforcement Learning (IRL) is used to approximate a reward function through observation of system trajectories under the control of trained DRL-based controllers. The approximated reward function is then used to launch attacks by the adversary against the Deep Q Network (DQN)-based controller. Via simulation, we evaluate the impacts of our two investigated attacks, finding that attacks are increasingly successful with increasing accuracy of the control model. Furthermore, we discuss some tradeoffs between control performance and security performance of DRL-based IIoT controllers, and outline several future research directions to secure machine learning use in IIoT systems.

A rapid ethnographic assessment conducted in 2016 engaged fishermen, their communities, and fisheries along the Gulf of Mexico coast five years after the Deepwater Horizon blowout of 2010. Intervie...

Based on research in four communities in Veracruz, Mexico, this article traces the cultural biography of economic change from an economy based primarily on coffee production to one based on migration, bamboo furniture manufacturing, and other livelihoods. In line with other studies, the declining importance of coffee in peasant livelihoods came about with the withdrawal of state support and neoliberal policies that encouraged a shift from quality to quantity production of coffee. Labor scarcity also played a role, however, as families dealt with falling coffee incomes by migrating to wage labor jobs in Mexico and the United States (U.S.). Our work suggests that changing global labor markets, combined with labor scarcities in Mexican communities, are as important to consider in economic change as the more common explanations of state agricultural policy and neoliberalism.

INTRODUCTIONCattlemen in Olancho, Honduras typically carry a cell phone in one pocket and a pistol in the other- the former a link to national and international livestock markets and family members living abroad and the latter reflecting the threat of cattle theftin a region on the southern fringe of a dangerous frontier. Catacamas, the second largest city in Olancho, is at the end of the road to the Honduran capital of Tegucigalpa, beyond which stretches a forest often used for drug and arms traffic between inland regions and the country's Caribbean coast. It is a region historically dependent on mixed crop-and-livestock production. Until recently, most rural inhabitants in small peasant communities near Catacamas raised cattle for milk, cheese, butter, and meat and produced corn, beans, and sorghum-rounding out diets with melons, squash, poultry, eggs, and a variety of other foods (PNUD 2014).Honduras is one of the poorest countries in the Western hemisphere-the fourth most poor, behind Haiti, Nicaragua, and Guyana. Incomes are low and people engage in multiple livelihoods to survive. Approximately 57% of rural families in Olancho are either landless or have access to less than one hectare of land, which is inadequate for household subsistence needs (PNUD 2014:8-9).Dire economic circumstances have resulted in the development of a number of minor but important economic alternatives to the peasant agriculture, including experimenting with commercial crops, expanding aquaculture and poultry production, and opening retail stores. The most important, however, have been carpentry workshops to meet migrants' demands for house and furniture construction, which has grown in importance since the turn of the 21st century as labor migration to the United States has been integrated into local survival strategies (Endo, et al. 2010; Reichman 2011).Profiling how local production systems have changed with increasing emigration, we argue here that migration, the development of carpentry workshops, and increasing negative sentiments toward farming among youth have contributed to a labor scarcity in agriculture. This, in turn, has encouraged local farmers to shiftfrom mixed crop-and-livestock farms to less labor intensive cattle ranching. Further, this shifthas led to an expansion of pastureland at the expense of local forests and former multi-cropped fields, exacerbating an already chronic problem with deforestation in Olancho, the Honduran state with not only the most forested land but with the most poorly managed forests and also the most susceptible to loss from illegal logging, expansion of croplands and pastures, and other sources (McSweeney 2015; Murillo 2011; PNUD 2014; Tucker 2008).METHODSBeginning in the fall of 2008, we conducted fieldwork over a period of twenty months in four communities near one another in central Olancho, Honduras, spending more than a month per community in direct fieldwork that was supplemented by a longerterm (>5 years) presence in each of the communities by the Red de Desarrollo Sostenible (RDS - Network for Sustainable Development), the non-governmental organization who partnered with us and provided us local research assistance. In all communities, we utilized local research assistants, who were a great assistance in the sampling process. We randomly sampled a total of 60 migrant households-or households that had sent one or more migrants to the United States-and 60 non-migrant households (N=120), taking care that all households came from similar class backgrounds. Our sampling universe was based on previous survey and ethnographic work conducted by the the Red de Desarrollo Sostenible following Hurricane Mitch; the Red de Desarrollo Sostenible continues to work in the region today and provided feedback on this paper to assure its relevance to contemporary developments.Focusing on local production systems, we asked household heads to describe their contemporary livelihoods and tell us how they had changed over the course of their lives, taking every opportunity to accompany family members as they tended livestock, worked in their fields, sawed boards for tables and chairs, and performed other economic activities. …

Puerto Rican artisanal fishers, like artisanal food producers around the world, emphasize the quality of their products to compete with industrial food producer-distributors. In this article, we trace the cultural biographies of three important fish species, focusing on their roles in creating social relationships and, through this process, creating value and political alliances to contest fisheries laws. We argue that fishers move strategically between moral and political economies to maintain fishing livelihoods and defend themselves against coastal developments that threaten those livelihoods.

Durante los años 90, sociólogos y antropólogos estudiosos de la migración se centraron de manera desproporcionada en la idea del transnacionalismo, generando estudios de fenómenos importantes tales como la paternidad transnacional, la política de diáspora e identidad, la ciudadanía flexible, las remesas sociales y, otros temas relacionados a factores que influyen en la experiencia de la migración internacional. Este trabajo también produjo relatos etnográficos de familias y comunidades que poseen lazos de pertenencia en por los menos dos países. Tales relatos etnográficos generaron descripciones y perfiles de gentes que habían forjado vínculos entre locaciones en base a oportunidades económicas, intercambios culturales, y redes sociales. During the 1990s, migration researchers in sociology and anthropology focused disproportionately on the idea of transnationalism, leading to investigations of critically important phenomena such as transnational parenting, diaspora politics and identity, flexible citizenship, social remittances, and other factors influencing the experiences of international migrants. This work also produced comprehensive ethnographic accounts of families and communities with attachments to places in two or more countries, profiling peoples who had forged dynamic relations between sending and receiving neighborhoods based on economic opportunities, cultural exchanges, and social networks.

For the past two decades, women have been migrating from Mexico to the United States on temporary work visas to pick meat from blue crabs in small coastal factories. Within a theoretical framework that argues for the relevance of a moral economic perspective to gendered migration, we examine the how participating in this migration influences migrants' families, including their abilities to produce higher-quality lives. Specifically, we focus on the various factors that feed into the decision to migrate, the immediate consequences of those decisions for the relations among migrants, children, spouses and other family and community members, and the longer-term consequences in terms of gender relations, the restructuring of parent–child relationships and the material benefits of work abroad. We find that women negotiate a variety of contradictions and paradoxes to participate in the programme, many of which directly influence their quest to reaffirm their abilities, as mothers, to produce quality human beings. These findings reflect more general global appeals for valuing human life by measures other than those of conventional political economy.

This article discusses the experience of the Nuevo South Action-Research Collaborative, a university–community collaborative involving an interdisciplinary group of faculty and students from East Carolina University and Latino community organizations. The article describes the collaborative formation process and places it within the context of the southeast as a new destination for Latino immigration. The collaborative formation process is discussed from the point of view of a complex encounter characterized by concurrences and tensions.

Even faced with overwhelming evidence that tobacco threatens human health, along with economic developments undermining their status as independent producers, North Carolina tobacco farmers view tobacco production in ways congruent with a moral economy. A shift from independent to contract production of tobacco and the dismantling of government price supports have challenged this moral economy, converting tobacco producers into a quasi–working class dependent on tobacco companies while leading to fewer tobacco farms and an increase in the average tobacco farm's size. These changes signal a shift away from a moral economy of tobacco, although moral-economic dimensions remain. Producers today emphasize different moral dimensions of economic behavior, such as producing quality human beings, than during earlier eras, when moral-economic actors pressed for state intervention in economic crises. Moral-economic principles are not restricted to either non-Western or historical peoples but, rather, influence economic production and ideology in advanced capitalist settings today.

Farm workers pose special problems for union organizing due to their legal status, their high rates of turnover, their employment through subcontracts, and the temporary and seasonal dimensions of farm work. Yet by organizing farm workers, unions have developed and refined strategies that point to methods of meeting the challenges of contemporary work environments in and out of agriculture. This includes organizing workers across fragmented space, whether transnational or transregional, and organizing workers who are sifted into production regimes via subcontractual relationships. This paper examines two farm worker unions – the Farm Labor Organizing Committee and the Coalition of Immokalee Workers – in terms of their successes and failures with farm labor organizing. It finds that boycotts, the use of fine arts, balancing local and transnational interests, and building relationships based on confianza (trust) are critical to the formation and maintenance of effective union organization.

Recent assaults on the tobacco industry have led to a decline in tobacco production across North Carolina, the largest tobacco producing state in the nation. Although a great deal of attention has been focused on tobacco farmers, considerably less work has been aimed at determining the effects of these changes on tobacco farmworkers, many of whom are Latinos. In this article, I discuss Rapid Ethnographic Assessment Procedures used to estimate the impact of changes in the tobacco industry on tobacco farmworkers. I find that the tobacco farm labor force is highly complex and that the effects of the economic downturns have had fewer effects on Latino farmworkers than on tobacco farm owners, in part because of the Latinization of the rural South.

IntroductionIn a two-month time span early in 2007, North Carolina's Beaufort County Commission approved two measures directed against the growing Latino population in the county, voting first to remove all non-English language materials from county offices and following with a vote to approve the County Sheriff's cooperation with Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) to locate and deport undocumented immigrants. Around the same time, the New York Times reported on a case of excessive exploitation among two Thai guestworkers in North Carolina and Louisiana, the Southern Poverty Law Center (2007) released a report entitled, Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States, and National Public Radio aired at least two stories addressing immigration issues. In the week between the New York Times article and the release of Close to Slavery, the cooperative extension service of Johnston County, North Carolina, hosted a panel to address agricultural labor issues, inviting representatives of the North Carolina and U.S. Departments of Labor, the Employment Security Commission, North Carolina Department of Labor, the Farm Bureau, and, most notably, the North Carolina Growers Association (NCGA). This last organization is one of the largest labor contracting organizations in the United States, specializing in the placement of H-2 workers; in 2004, the NCGA signed an agreement with the Farm Labor Organizing Committee on the condition that law suits against them be dropped. Farmers from across the North Carolina's coastal plain attended, and the issue of pending immigration reform legislation generated the most heated debate. Not insignificantly, much of this focus on immigration occurred around the time that President Bush toured Latin America and, in Mexico, again raised the issue of immigration reform.These local, regional, and national events and reports illustrate the varied dimensions of immigration and its pervasiveness across the North American social and cultural landscape, underscoring the point that the United States is ripe for immigration reform. Several legislative initiatives include some form of expansion of the current H-2 programs-the nation's current guestworker programs-although these vary according to such things as how guestworkers' wages would be determined, whether or not employers would provide housing, guestworkers' access to the courts, protections workers would receive, and other factors. Much of this legislation has been crafted as if ignorant of the ways the H-2 programs have evolved (or devolved) since the last major immigration reform in 1986, despite widely publicized works like Close to Slavery and other, less widely read work (e.g. North South Institute 2006; Wilkinson 1989; Hahamovich 2003; Griffith 2006; Smart 1997). These works nearly always find that H-2 programs, primarily because of the provision that H-2 workers are bound to one and only one employer, have a tendency to deteriorate over time, approximating highly exploitative labor contracting practices like indentured servitude.In this paper, I examine practices that are common in the nation's current H-2 programs and in labor contracting generally, relating them to other developments in immigration taking place in the rural U.S. South.1 Drawing on research conducted in rural North Carolina regions from 2001 to the present, as well as case studies of immigration into Georgia, Iowa, and Minnesota, I suggest that, as labor relations in guestworker programs deteriorate, people participating in H-2 programs have been able to resist the excessive labor control that has been structured into the program. They accomplish this, usually, by working outside of their contracts, in jobs that they are not legally contracted to accept. At times they access these jobs with the assistance of their legal employers and at times against their employers' wishes or without their employers' knowledge. The maturing of Latino communities in new destinations across the United States, a process bolstered by several public and private U. …

The National Public Safety Telecommunications Council (NPSTC) has defined resiliency as the ability of a network to withstand the loss of assets and to recover quickly from such losses. How to measure the resiliency of a base station deployment is an important consideration for network planners and operators. In this paper, we propose a resiliency measurement method in conjunction with a performance metric such as coverage or supported throughput, where we define the resiliency as the maximum number of sites that can fail before the metric falls below a minimum acceptable threshold. Because the number of combinations of failures increases exponentially with respect to the number of sites in a given deployment, we introduce an algorithm that generates estimates of the lowest, highest, and average values of the metric for a given failure count while examining a subset of the possible failure combinations. We use an example deployment to demonstrate how the resiliency metric can be used to identify sites that have a disproportionate impact on performance; the network planner can harden these sites or, for a future deployment, adjust the site placement to reduce the effect of the high-impact sites.

Several self- and externally-imposed identifiers—ethnic background, religious membership, gender, and national origin for example—obscure class affiliation and disguise the ways that individuals from different class backgrounds use such identifiers to increase or reduce the material consequences of class. Among immigrants, class relations can become further obscured by legal statuses assigned by the state, village of origin, language ability, and the extent to which immigrants view themselves as transnationals or members of Diasporas. Drawing on recent research among Latino immigrants in the U.S. Midwest and South, this paper examines class relations among immigrants with different degrees and kinds of immigration experience.

As GMPLS and its supporting set of protocols develop into aviable control plane for optical networks, an important function that they will need to support will be the protection and restoration function that has been a major feature of legacy optical networks. A network with a robust set of protection and restoration mechanisms will be able to support data traffic while allowing faster recovery from failures than can be obtained using layer 3 rerouting. Several models have been proposed for protection with GMPLS using shared backup paths. This previous work has not investigated the effect on recovery time critical to the service or the number of backup paths that are required to meet a desired level of performance. Using both restoration time and recovery blocking probability, we have developed a new analytic model for GMPLS-based recovery in M : N protection groups. Furthermore, we show that smaller backup paths can be reserved by capturing the effect of multiple failures in the case of M : N shared protection with revertive mode in an optical network with a GMPLS control plane.

Human perceptions of the relationship between pollution and food safety are often haphazard and contradictory, based on a variety of sources of information. Recent media events concerning seafood and coastal pollution have generated concern that an otherwise healthy food— fish and shellfish—has become dangerous. We assess consumer knowledge about seafood safety and coastal pollution using several methods, including tests of cultural consensus. We find that consumers view seafood as far more threatened by pollution than scientific analysis suggests, due in part to their perceptions about the dynamics of the marine environment. Finding variation in perceptions within our population based on income and other factors, we explore the use of the cultural consensus approach in large and heterogeneous populations.

Tourist development often depends on the development of specific tourist activities (e.g., sportfishing), combined with new and creative approaches to promoting areas as tourist destinations. Travel agents occupy crucial positions in this process, acting as information brokers between tourists and tourist destinations. Their perceptions of tourist destinations influence their promotion behaviors. Methods that model perceptions using judged similarity and belief-frame comparison data, such as multidimensional scaling, optimal scaling and clustering analysis, are particularly useful in gaining information about how travel agents think about tourist destinations. Such methods may also facilitate attempts to promote one destination over another. We present these methods in this article, illustrating how they were applied to the promotion of sportfishing in Puerto Rico as one portion of an overall effort of fisheries development in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands.

IRCA's impact on the U.S. poultry industry has been uneven across industry sectors and regions. In California, where undocumented immigrants have been present for some decades, IRCA strengthened unions in the processing sector without constricting labor supplies. In other areas of depressed local economies and high unemployment, IRCA has had little impact. Where low-wage industrial recruitment has increased competition for unskilled workers, however, plants have been relying on documented and undocumented new immigrants for labor. Although new immigrants stabilize industry work forces in the short run, over time these immigrant inflows reinforce high labor turnover and fuel the tendency for technological changes to accommodate an unskilkd labor force.

Peasant fishers throughout Latin America and the Caribbean typically combine fishing with wage labor to varying degrees. Certain scholars have interpreted this as a reflection of incomplete incorporation into capitalist spheres of influence, where contradictions emerge as groups attempt to maintain economic and cultural autonomy while being subordinated to capitalist relations of production. In this article we investigate the conceptual and political consequences of this process among Puerto Rican fishers. We find that fishers have appropriated the concepts of “class” and “therapy” from their participation in the formal economy and have adapted these concepts to the politics and semantics of artisanal fishing. [fishing, hegemony, semiproletarianization, Puerto Rico]

Fishers must constantly make inferences about the location, abundance, quality, and distribution of the resource. These inferences are derived from indirect observation and sampling. Every time a fisher sets out hook, or trap, he/she is sampling the water for the resource, which can then be related to proxies such as water conditions, underwater environments and topography, weather, and catch characteristics.

In the past ten years, the British West Indies Temporary Alien Labor Program has received widespread judicial and legislative support and criticism. While sugar and apple producers who import West Indians argue that domestic labor is insufficient to harvest their crops, labor organizations and their supporters maintain that domestic labor is adequate. The resulting legal disputes focus primarily on the issue of whether or not West Indians are displacing U.S. workers or undermining wage rates and working conditions. This article examines the relationships among legal issues surrounding the program, the U.S. farm labor market, and the Jamaican peasantry. It argues that continued imports of foreign labor during times of high domestic unemployment, as well as the varied factors which underlie the continued willingness and ability of Jamaican peasant households to supply workers to U.S. producers, can be most clearly understood from an international and historical perspective, rather than focussing on the needs and problems of any one nation.