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Media images often present one idealized type of woman: she is thin, sexualized, and White. Although research has shown that there are stereotypes associated with sexualized women, known research has not addressed whether these stereotypes vary based on other characteristics such as body type and race. The current study aimed to examine the stereotypes associated with women who varied in sexualization, as well as body size and race, and whether participants’ characteristics moderated these stereotypes. U.S. college-aged students (n = 500: 101 men, 393 women, 6 unknown) completed measures of gender stereotypes and rated the attributes of women who varied in sexualization (sexualized vs. non-sexualized clothing), body size (thin vs. plus-sized), and race (Black vs. White). Results suggest that body size is more salient than sexualization and stereotypes about sexualized women are differentially applied to White and Black women. Additionally, participants’ gender and race moderated stereotype ratings. Lastly, viewing sexualized images was related to higher endorsement of sexualized gender stereotypes, but only in women. Taken together our results highlight that research on sexualization should address important intersectional components, such as race and body size. We also discuss broader implications of our results on lessening stereotyping and weight stigma.

Evidence suggests that engaging in photo behaviors on social media is associated with negative body image (i.e. negative thoughts and feelings toward the body). One potential mechanism underlying t...

Although three articles in this special issue address three very different social groupings—gender, ethnicity, and academic needs—they all highlight why inclusion is important for students’ healthy...

In this monograph, we argue for the establishment of a developmental science of politics that describes, explains, and predicts the formation and change of individuals' political knowledge, attitudes, and behavior beginning in childhood and continuing across the life course. Reflecting our goal of contributing both theoretical conceptualizations and empirical data, we have organized the monograph into two broad sections. In the first section, we outline theoretical contributions that the study of politics may make to developmental science and provide practical reasons that empirical research in the domain of politics is important (e.g., for identifying ways to improve civics education and for encouraging higher voting rates among young adults). We also review major historical approaches to the study of political development and provide an integrative theoretical framework to ground future work. Drawing on Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model as an organizing scheme and emphasizing social justice issues, we describe how factors rooted in cultural contexts, families, and children themselves are likely to shape political development. In the second section of the monograph, we argue for the importance and utility of studying major political events, such as presidential elections, and introduce the major themes, rationales, and hypotheses for a study of U.S. children's views of the 2016 U.S. presidential election. In addition, we apply a social-justice lens to political thought and participation, addressing the role of gender/sex and race/ethnicity in children's political development broadly, and in their knowledge and views of the 2016 U.S. presidential election specifically. In interviews conducted within the month before and after the election, we examined two overarching categories of children's political attitudes: (a) knowledge, preferences, and expectations about the 2016 election, and (b) knowledge and attitudes concerning gender/sex and politics, particularly relevant for the 2016 election given Hillary Clinton's role as the first female major-party candidate for the presidency. Participants were 187 children (101 girls) between 5 and 11 years of age (M = 8.42 years, SD = 1.45 years). They were recruited from schools and youth organizations in five counties in four U.S. states (Kansas, Kentucky, Texas, and Washington) with varying voting patterns (e.g., Trump voters ranged from 27% to 71% of county voters). The sample was not a nationally representative one, but was racially diverse (35 African American, 50 Latinx, 81 White, and 21 multiracial, Asian American, Middle Eastern, or Native American children). In addition to several child characteristics (e.g., age, social dominance orientation [SDO]), we assessed several family and community characteristics (e.g., child-reported parental interest in the election and government-reported county-level voting patterns, respectively) hypothesized to predict outcome variables. Although our findings are shaped by the nature of our sample (e.g., our participants were less likely to support Trump than children in larger, nationwide samples were), they offer preliminary insights into children's political development. Overall, children in our sample were interested in and knowledgeable about the presidential election (e.g., a large majority identified the candidates correctly and reported some knowledge about their personal qualities or policy positions). They reported more information about Donald Trump's than Hillary Clinton's policies, largely accounted for by the substantial percentage of children (41%) who referred to Trump's immigration policies (e.g., building a wall between the United States and Mexico). Overall, children reported as many negative as positive personal qualities of the candidates, with negative qualities being reported more often for Trump than for Clinton (56% and 18% of children, respectively). Most children (88%) supported Clinton over Trump, a preference that did not vary by participants' gender/sex or race/ethnicity. In their responses to an open-ended inquiry about their reactions to Trump's win, 63% of children reported negative and 18% reported positive emotions. Latinx children reacted more negatively to the election outcome than did White children. Girls' and boys' emotional responses to the election outcome did not differ. Children's personal interest in serving as U.S. president did not vary across gender/sex or racial/ethnic groups (overall, 42% were interested). Clinton's loss of the election did not appear to depress (or pique) girls' interest in becoming U.S. president. With respect to the role of gender/sex in politics, many children (35%) were ignorant about women's absence from the U.S. presidency. Only a single child was able to name a historical individual who worked for women's civil rights or suffrage. Child characteristics predicted some outcome variables. For example, as expected, older children showed greater knowledge about the candidates than did younger children. Family and community characteristics also predicted some outcome variables. For example, as expected, participants were more likely to support Trump if they perceived that their parents supported him and if Trump received a greater percentage of votes in the children's county of residence. Our data suggest that civic education should be expanded and reformed. In addition to addressing societal problems requiring political solutions, civics lessons should include the histories of social groups' political participation, including information about gender discrimination and the women's suffrage movement in U.S. political history. Providing children with environments that are rich in information related to the purpose and value of politics, and with opportunities and encouragement for political thought and action, is potentially beneficial for youth and their nations.

This chapter examines the links and mechanisms associated with intergenerational cultural conflict, psychological distress, and the intergenerational differences in acculturation and model minority stereotype (MMS) endorsement for South Korean immigrants. Specifically, applying Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, the microsystem and macrosystem factors are examined for Korean American adolescents’ (ages 12–19, M = 15.3 years, SD = 1.71). The microsystem includes their mothers’ (N = 209 dyads) acculturation and MMS endorsement in relation to the adolescents’ as well as intergenerational cultural conflict. The macrosystem included the cultural context under which the MMS and intergenerational cultural conflict occurred. Results indicated that when mothers and their adolescents differed in their acculturation, they also differed in their endorsement of the MMS. Next, as expected, the adolescents who had mothers who were not as acculturated to the American culture, experienced more cultural conflict with their parents and, in turn, felt more psychological distress. Furthermore, the adolescents who had mothers who endorsed the MMS to a greater degree, experienced more cultural conflict with their parents and, in turn, felt more psychological distress.

Ethnic prejudice, even among very young children, is a universal occurrence. Yet, little research has been conducted on this issue outside of Westernized contexts. The current study evaluated a storybook intervention in Indonesia, a country of historically high racial tensions, designed to reduce young children’s ethnic bias regarding out-groups of high-status (i.e., Chinese) and low-status (i.e., Papuan). In Study 1, 138 children, aged from 4 to 7 years, participated and included 87 children in an intervention group. The children were read two stories about cross-ethnic friendships over 2 days. Children’s attitudes were evaluated before and after the storybook reading using the Multi-response Racial Attitude measure and a social distance measure. Analyses indicated minimal to no effectiveness of the intervention. These findings were replicated in Study 2 with 20 children who received an enhanced intervention procedure by being read five different stories about cross-ethnic friendships, each book read two times over the course of 5 weeks, followed by discussions about the messages in the stories. Again, there was no reduction in racial bias. The combined lack of prejudice reduction across Study 1 and Study 2 emphasized how strong racial bias for lowest status, ethnic out-groups develops from an early age and that these prejudices are difficult to change, warranting greater attention in early childhood educational research.

The current study examines Mexican-heritage immigrant parents’ financial stress, English language fluency, and depressive symptoms as risk factors for parental academic involvement and child academic outcomes. Participants were 68 Latino immigrant (from Mexico) third and fourth graders and their parents. Results from a structural equation model analysis indicated that Latino parents who reported greater financial stress also reported higher levels of depressive symptoms; this, in turn, was related to lower parent-reported levels of engagement in the monitoring and transmission of implicit and explicit valuing of academics. Parental monitoring of academics was positively associated with children's success in mathematics and transmission of implicit and explicit valuing of academics was positively associated with children's success in language arts. The current study extends support for the Family Economic Stress Model by demonstrating connections between parental stress, emotional well-being, and child academic outcomes, through parental involvement in children's academics in a Latino-heritage sample.

The present paper describes a study investigating the ethnic identity development of Latino immigrant children (n = 155) in middle childhood (ages 8–11) in a predominantly White community. The study examined how ethnic identity was related to children's school context. School context was operationalized at the structural level, as the ethnic composition of the teachers and peers, as well as the schools' implicit messages about their valuing of multiculturalism; and the proximal interpersonal level, as children's perceptions of peer discrimination and teacher fairness. Results indicated that both the structural and proximal context predicted children's ethnic label choices, the importance placed on their ethnic identity, the positivity of their ethnic identity, and their American identity.

Worldwide, most children face marginalization and societal inequities to varying degrees. For developmental science to have both scientific and societal value, scientists must account for the impact of societal inequities, regardless of the focus of their research. In this article, we illustrate how equity and justice are relevant for all children. We also argue that equity and justice are essential components for all developmental science and should be the basis for how we evaluate scientific rigor. Ignoring equity and justice issues perpetuates biases within the field and limits our understanding of developmental processes. We offer graduated recommendations for all developmental scientists to consider, starting with minimal standards for inclusion and descriptions of participants, and continuing with guidance for articulating what mechanisms lead to observed differences. We also urge researchers to examine why and how social inequities and contexts shape their focal domain of developmental science.

The current study examined whether children in elementary school in the United States held stereotypes and prejudicial attitudes about Arab Muslims relative to other groups. Children (n = 136), ages 6–11 (55 boys, 81 girls), were read three counterbalanced vignettes about different immigrant families who moved to the United States: one family from the Middle East with clothing markers indicating they are Muslim (e.g., hijab), one family from the Middle East without clothing markers indicating religion, and one White family from Ireland. Children's responses indicated stereotypes associating the Arab Muslim male target as more anti-American and hostile and the Arab Muslim female target as more oppressed than others, both consistent with prevalent media stereotypes. Children's positive and negative affective intergroup attitudes were also measured, along with their attitudes about who can be an “American,” with children showing both a positivity and negativity bias against Arab Muslims. Children who had some contact with Muslims or were familiar with Islam felt more positively toward Arab Muslims than less informed children. In addition, if children perceived Arab Muslims to be prototypical “Americans,” and identified as very American themselves, they also held positive attitudes toward Arab Muslims. Implications for prejudice reduction interventions are discussed.

This mixed-methods study explored early adolescents’ national American identification, and meanings attached to being American. Participants ( N = 102; 51% female; ages 10-12, [Formula: see text] = 11.45, SD = .70) were racially and ethnically diverse from primarily middle- to upper-middle class families (median household income = US$150,000-US$199,999; 75% had a college degree or higher). Youth attended a private, secular elementary school with practices designed to celebrate diversity. Participants associated Americans with positive trait stereotypes, symbols (e.g., American flag), nativity status, and particular racial-ethnic groups (e.g., White). Youth who self-identified as American ( n = 51) frequently asserted that being American, defined by their birthplace and residence in the United States, was important. Results suggest that early adolescence is an optimal developmental period to examine the emergence of an American identity, and validate the benefits of using mixed methods in the study of youths’ national and racial-ethnic identification and the accompanying meaning-making process.

Because research on ethnic-racial identity development largely excludes multiethno-racial youth, we used a mixed-methods approach to examine ethno-racial meanings and identification among 102 early adolescents ( M = 11.45, SD = 0.70 years) with multiethno-racial ( n = 45), mono-majority (i.e., European American; n = 29), or mono-minority (e.g., Latino, African American; n = 28) heritage. Results indicated more similarity than difference between multiethno-racial and mono-minority youth—most understood their heritage through tangible connections (e.g., language). Social (e.g., stereotypes) and individual (e.g., pride) meanings of ethno-racial heritage were also discussed. Last, we observed that most multiethno-racial youth identified with either one (53.3%) or all components of their heritage (35.6%), and these identification choices were linked to tangible experiences (e.g., travel or language proficiency). Developmental and contextual reasons for these findings are discussed.

Immigration is a frequently debated topic in American politics and media, yet little work examined children's understanding of this issue. In order to explore how children's understanding of immigration may differ based on their immigration experience, 261 elementary school-aged children (M = 9 years; SD = 1 year, 1 month) answered open-ended questions regarding why people move to the United States and why it should be legal or not. The sample consisted of 196 immigrants (first and second generation Latino/a immigrants) and 65 nonimmigrants (non-Latino/a children living in America for at least three generations). Children also rated possible explanations for societal antiimmigration attitudes. As predicted, Latino/a immigrant children explained immigration as a means of attaining concrete benefits for immigrants, such as improved education or jobs. They also referenced reuniting with family members in the U.S. Nonimmigrant children focused more on immigrants seeking American freedoms, reflecting the school-based curriculum explaining early European immigration to the U.S. Results reflect how differing experiences with immigration (direct or indirect) may influence perceptions towards immigration.

Peer sexual harassment is a stressor for many girls in middle and high school. Prior research indicates that approach strategies (seeking support or confronting) are generally more effective than avoidance strategies in alleviating stress. However, the deployment of effective coping behaviors depends partly on how individuals evaluate different options (i.e., cognitive appraisal). The present study tested sociocultural (ethnicity, parents’ education), interpersonal (perceived support from peers, mother, and father), developmental (age, perspective taking), and individual (self-esteem, feminist self-identification) factors as predictors of girls’ cognitive appraisals of coping responses to sexual harassment. The sample comprised 304 girls (M age = 15.5 years, range = 14 to 18 years) from diverse socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds who reported having previously experienced sexual harassment (e.g., unwanted sexual comments or actions). Cognitive appraisals of coping were based on the reported likelihood of confronting, seeking help, or using avoidance in response to sexual harassment. Regression analyses indicated that feminist identity, self-esteem, perspective taking, perceived support, and parents’ education were variously related to appraisals of different responses.

The current study examined the role of endorsed stereotypes about men and women and perceived peer norms in predicting three distinct types of stereotypical sexualized behaviors (verbal, physical, and indirect) among late adolescents. Two hundred and fifty U.S. college students from the mid-South (178 females, 72 males) between the ages of 17 and 19 completed a number of surveys regarding sexual gender stereotypes (e.g., men are sex-focused and women are sexual objects), perceived peer norms about the acceptability of stereotypical sexualized behaviors (SSB), and their own SSBs. Results revealed that most college students have perpetrated these SSBs at least once, and that the most common form of sexualized behavior was verbal SSB, such as rating someone’s body. Results also showed that, although the young men and women did not differ in their perpetration of indirect SSBs (e.g., sending pictures via text), young men perpetrated more verbal and physical SSB than women. For young women, endorsing the idea that men are sex-focused predicted all three types of SSB. For young men, endorsing the stereotype that men are sex-focused predicted verbal and physical SSB, and endorsing the stereotype that women are sex objects predicted physical SSB. Importantly, perceived peer group norms were a significant predictor of all three types of SSB for both women and men. Thus, the current study suggests that distinct types of stereotypical sexualized behaviors are common among college students, and are predicted by an individual’s stereotypes about men and women and perceived peer norms.

The current study examines whether being high in gender typicality is associated with popularity, whether being low in gender typicality is associated with rejection/teasing, and whether teasing due to low gender typicality mediates the association with negative mental health. Middle school children (34 boys and 50 girls) described hypothetical popular and rejected/teased peers, and completed self-report measures about their own gender typicality, experiences with gender-based teasing, depressive symptoms, anxiety, self-esteem, and body image. Participants also completed measures about their peers' gender typicality, popularity, and likeability. Results indicated that popular youth were described as more gender typical than rejected/teased youth. Further, being typical for one's gender significantly predicted being rated as popular by peers, and this relationship was moderated by gender. Finally, low gender typicality predicted more negative mental health outcomes for boys. These relationships were, at times, mediated by experiences with gender-based teasing, suggesting that negative mental health outcomes may be a result of the social repercussions of being low in gender typicality rather than a direct result of low typicality.

This study examined ethnic identity, perceptions of discrimination, and academic attitudes and performance of primarily first- and second-generation Mexican immigrant children living in a predominantly White community (N = 204, 19 schools, mean age = 9 years). The study also examined schools’ promotion of multiculturalism and teachers’ attitudes about the value of diversity in predicting immigrant youth’s attitudes and experiences. Results indicated that Latino immigrant children in this White community held positive and important ethnic identities and perceived low overall rates of discrimination. As expected, however, school and teacher characteristics were important in predicting children’s perceptions of discrimination and ethnic identity, and moderated whether perceptions of discrimination and ethnic identity were related to attitudes about school and academic performance.

Despite dramatically narrowing gender gaps, women remain underrepresented in mathematics and math-related fields. Parents can shape expectations and interests, which may predict later differences in achievement and occupational choices. This study examines children’s early mathematical environments by observing the amount that mothers talk to their sons and daughters (mean age 22 months) about cardinal number, a basic precursor to mathematics. In analyses of naturalistic mother–child interactions from the Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES) database, boys received significantly more number-specific language input than girls. Greater amounts of early number-related talk may promote familiarity and liking for mathematical concepts, which may influence later preferences and career choices. Additionally, the stereotype of male dominance in math may be so pervasive that culturally prescribed gender roles may be unintentionally reinforced to very young children.

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, followed by the 2006 U.S. Department of Education regulations, represented a drastic change in American public policy by allowing for sex segregation in public schools—as long as it is voluntary, students are provided a substantially equal co-educational option, and the segregation substantially furthers an important governmental objective. Although existing federal and state laws explicitly ban sex segregation, the Courts have historically allowed single-sex schooling within higher education if it does not perpetuate gender stereotypes. Because of the recent public policy changes, there has been a rapid increase in single-sex education within the U.S. public elementary and secondary school system. Many of the now single-sex public schools, however, began segregating because they believe that boys and girls should be taught differently due to innate differences in learning styles and interests. The result is that many of these schools base their educational practices on gender stereotypes. This contradiction of existing laws and precedents has resulted in ongoing lawsuits. This paper offers a review of the legal issues and court cases surrounding single-sex education in the public school system.

The current study examined 5 to 11-year-old European American children's (N = 90) attitudes regarding immigrants, immigration policy, and what it means to be an American. The majority of children in the sample (from a predominantly European American community) held strong American identities and had distinct ideas about what it means to be an American (namely, one must love America, live by its rules, and be White). Children were in favor of legal immigration as a policy, and although they believed in allowing illegal immigrants to stay if employed, many younger children believed they should go to jail. Many children in the sample were aware of Americans' anti-immigration sentiments, largely attributing it to ethnic/cultural discrimination. Finally, children held negative attitudes about immigrants, particularly Mexican immigrants. These negative attitudes were most evident among children who held a strong, prototypical national in-group identity. In contrast, children did not hold differential attitudes about White and Black Americans.

An experimental methodology was used to test hypotheses concerning the effects of contextual, cognitive-developmental, and individual difference factors on children's views of whether they have been the target of gender discrimination and the possible consequent effect of such views on two forms of state self-esteem: performance and social acceptance. Children (N=108, 5-11 years of age) completed theory of mind and gender attitude measures and a drawing task. Next, children received feedback that was designed to appear either gender biased (discrimination condition) or nonbiased (control condition). Children's attributions for the feedback and state self-esteem were assessed. As expected, children reported having been the target of gender discrimination more often in the discrimination condition than in the control condition. Older and more cognitively advanced children made fewer attributions to discrimination than their peers. Perceptions of discrimination were associated with higher performance state self-esteem and, among egalitarian children, lower social state self-esteem.

Individuals often feel more empathy toward members of their own social groups than toward members of other social groups. However, individual factors contributing to this empathy bias remain largely unexplored among children. This study examined intergroup empathic processing among 94 children (mean age=8.74years, SD=1.76) assigned to novel color groups. After 1week in their group, children were interviewed to assess their ingroup identification and trait levels of social anxiety. Subsequently, a social threat was simulated, and children's feelings of situational distress and empathy bias for others who experienced the same threat were assessed. Findings indicated that, among children who reported more social anxiety and situational distress, those with a stronger ingroup identity displayed more empathy bias favoring their ingroup. Given that empathy is an important contributor to prosocial behavior, implications for children's intergroup relations are discussed.

This study explores developing conceptions of feminism among Latina adolescents, their prevalence of feminist endorsement, and whether home environment and well-being are related to feminist identity. One hundred and forty Latina girls (Grades 9 to 12, M age = 15) wrote personal narratives of their understanding of feminism and whether they consider themselves feminists. The major themes that emerged in girls’ conceptions were notions of feminism either as equality, as femininity, as female empowerment, as bias, or as sexism. Results show older adolescents are more likely to define feminism with regard to group-based status differences and that opposition to female superiority is a common reason for rejecting feminism. Endorsement of an egalitarian-based definition of feminism was correlated with higher body image but was unrelated to self-esteem or parent education.

Gender development has been a core concern of psychological science since its inception. The second wave of the feminist movement spurred new theoretical perspectives on gender development and, across the ensuing decades, these new perspectives led to myriad empirical insights into gender development, including the formation, function, and consequences of children’s gender-related cognitions, affect, and behavior. In this paper, we review five cutting edge areas of feminist-grounded research that are important, both because they provide new theoretical insights into the processes involved in gender development and carry important implications for contemporary policy and practice around the treatment of gender. Specifically, we review developmental science concerning (1) gendered language, (2) gender atypicality, (3) gender discrimination and sexual harassment, (4) sexualization of girls, and (5) single-sex schooling.

The devastation associated with Hurricane Katrina raised several issues related to race, class, and the government in the United States. We examined African American children’s (a) knowledge of demographic characteristics of the victims, (b) beliefs about the role of race and class biases in the delayed relief efforts, and (c) views of the role and effectiveness of the government in response to the disaster. Overall, results indicated that older African American children were less likely to attribute the delayed relief to individual culpability, and slightly more likely to attribute it to racial discrimination, than were younger African American children. All youth believed in a strong, but nuanced, role of the government, but younger children were more likely to rate it as effective. Among those children who had discussed the disaster with a parent, children’s attributions for the delayed relief were associated with their political views. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina sparked a large national debate about race, class, and the role of the government in the United States. As is well documented, approximately 150,000 people were stranded in New Orleans without sufficient aid for one week (Castellano, Ussery, & Gruntfest, 2006). Largely because of the

The current study examined children's identification and reasoning about their subjective social status (SSS), their beliefs about social class groups (i.e., the poor, middle class, and rich), and the associations between the two. Study participants were 117 10- to 12-year-old children of diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds attending a laboratory elementary school in Southern California. Results indicated that children's SSS ratings correlated with indicators of family socioeconomic status and were informed by material possessions, lifestyle characteristics, and social and societal comparisons. Children rated the poor as having fewer positive attributes and more negative attributes than the middle class, and fewer positive attributes than the rich. Lower SSS children held less positive attitudes toward the poor than children with middle SSS ratings.

Two studies (conducted in 2013) examined whether elementary-aged children endorse a within-gender stereotype about sexualized girls. In Study 1, children (N = 208) ages 6–11 rated sexualized girls as more popular but less intelligent, athletic, and nice compared to nonsexualized girls. These distinctions were stronger for girls and older children, and in accordance with our developmental intergroup theoretical framework, were related to children's cognitive development and media exposure. Study 2 (N = 155) replicated the previous findings using more ecologically valid and realistic images of girls and further explored individual differences in the endorsement of the sexualized girl stereotype. Additional results indicated that the belief that girls should be appearance focused predicted their endorsement of the sexualized girl stereotype.

Latino and White/European American children (N = 99; 5–11 years of age) participated in a study designed to examine their perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination in educational settings. Children heard scenarios involving two children of different races/ethnicities, one who received a more positive outcome from a teacher than the other. Children were then asked about the reasons for the differential outcomes. The role of (a) situational information (i.e., the race/ethnicity of the children and teacher in the story, and information about the teacher’s past choices); (b) social-cognitive abilities (i.e., theory of mind); and (c) child characteristics (i.e., child’s race/ethnicity and racial/ethnic attitudes) in facilitating children’s attributions to discrimination was assessed. Results indicated that children most frequently attributed differential outcomes to the quality of work or the ability of students. Children were most likely to make an attribution to discrimination when the teacher rewarded a same-race/ethnicity child and had a history of similar behavior. Children’s attention to situational information was moderated, however, by their social-cognitive abilities. Children’s own race/ethnicity and ethnic attitudes also affected their perceptions of discrimination.

Sexism is gender-based prejudice or discrimination. As with other forms of prejudice and discrimination, it functions to maintain status and power differences between groups in society. One manifestation of sexism involves prejudice and discrimination against girls and women who seek to achieve in prestigious fields traditionally associated with males. Another manifestation of sexism, however, occurs when pressures are placed on boys and men to conform to traditional conceptions of masculinity. Over the last two decades, an increasing number of developmental and educational psychologists have become concerned about sexism directed toward children and adolescents in school contexts. Our chapter reviews the research on this topic. After providing an overview of different processes related to sexism, we examine how it is manifested in school contexts. Sexism is seen through gender-stereotyped biases against girls and boys in academic and athletic achievement. Also, it occurs through sexual harassment in social interactions. We also address factors related to children's awareness of sexism and coping responses to sexism. Finally, we consider possible ways to reduce sexism and foster effective coping in schools.

The current study examined gender differences in conceptions of ethnicity among Mexican immigrant children living in a predominantly White community (N = 213, M = 9.14 years). Results indicated that boys oriented more strongly toward their Mexican culture if they felt positively about it. Girls, however, showed a stronger preference for Spanish than boys, and this Spanish preference was not diminished even when they felt less positively about their ethnicity. Furthermore, boys’ academic attitudes were buffered from discrimination by their cultural orientation, whereas girls’ academic attitudes were not. Results are discussed in context of gendered cultural socialization pressures among Latino families.

Anti-bias education broadly refers to school-based interventions designed to reduce racial, ethnic, or gender bias. Specifically, this label most often refers to intervention programs that teach children explicitly about the negative consequences of discrimination, stereotypes, and exclusion. At times, this label can also be used to refer to multicultural education programs, which highlight positive attributes of a group and enhance children's knowledge about that group. These different types of anti-bias education differ in their theoretical approaches and effectiveness. Programs also differ in the intended recipients of the anti-bias education. Typically, programs aim to change the biased attitudes of elementary-school children in the dominant, majority ethnic group (in the US, European American Whites), although most programs could be adapted to any group of children. Most scholars agree, however, that programs designed to change biased attitudes are most effective during the preschool years and least effective during adolescence. Keywords: anti-bias; multicultural; prejudice reduction; intervention; discrimination; stereotype

Although the gender gap has dramatically narrowed in recent decades, women remain underrepresented in many science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This study examined social and personal factors in relation to adolescent girls’ motivation in STEM (math/science) versus non-STEM (English) subjects. An ethnically diverse sample of 579 girls ages 13–18 years (M = 15) in the U.S. completed questionnaires measuring their academic achievement, ability beliefs, values, and experiences. Social and personal factors were hypothesized to predict motivation (expectancy-value) differently in math/science (M/S) and English. Social factors included perceived M/S and English support from parents and peers. Personal factors included facets of gender identity (felt conformity pressure, gender typicality, gender-role contentedness), gender-related attitudes, and exposure to feminism. In addition, grades, age, parents’ education, and ethnicity were controlled. Girls’ M/S motivation was positively associated with mother M/S support, peer M/S support, gender-egalitarian beliefs, and exposure to feminism; it was negatively related to peer English support. Girls’ English motivation was positively associated with peer English support as well as felt pressure from parents; it was negatively related to peer M/S support and felt peer pressure. The findings suggest that social and personal factors may influence girls’ motivation in domain-specific ways.

The study investigated Latina and European American adolescent girls’ (N = 345, M = 15.2 years, range = 13 to 18) experiences with academic sexism in mathematics and science (M/S) and their M/S perceived competence and M/S value (liking and importance). M/S academic sexism was based on girls’ reported experiences hearing sexist comments about girls’ abilities in math and science. Older European American adolescents, and both younger and older Latina adolescents, who experienced several instances of academic sexism felt less competent in M/S than girls who experienced less sexism (controlling for M/S grades). In addition, among older girls (regardless of ethnicity), those who experienced several instances of academic sexism valued M/S less than girls who experienced less sexism.

Discrimination affects millions of children in the United States and throughout the world. Although the topic is important for both theoretical and applied reasons, little developmental work has examined children's perceptions of discrimination directed toward themselves and others. A review of past theoretical and empirical work on the perception of discrimination is provided. Next, a developmental model of the perception of discrimination is offered. The model identifies developmental and individual differences expected to influence judgments about discrimination, as well as situational variables that are likely to support attributions to discrimination.

Children (N = 76; ages 5-10 years) participated in a study designed to examine perceptions of gender discrimination. Children were read scenarios in which a teacher determined outcomes for 2 students (1 boy and 1 girl). Contextual information (i.e., teacher's past behavior), the gender of the target of discrimination (i.e., student), and the gender of the perpetrator (i.e., teacher) were manipulated. Results indicated that older children were more likely than younger children to make attributions to discrimination when contextual information suggested that it was likely. Girls (but not boys) were more likely to view girls than boys as victims of discrimination, and children with egalitarian gender attitudes were more likely to perceive discrimination than were their peers.

This study was designed to examine whether the presence of implicit links between social groups and high versus low status attributes affects the formation of intergroup attitudes. Elementary school children aged 7 to 12 years (N = 91) were given measures of classification skill and self-esteem, and assigned to one of three types of summer school classrooms in which teachers made (1) functional use of novel ("blue" and "yellow") social groups that were depicted via posters as varying in status, (2) no explicit use of novel social groups that were, nonetheless, depicted as varying in status, or (3) functional use of novel social groups in the absence of information about status. After 6 weeks, children completed measures of intergroup attitudes. Results indicated that children's intergroup attitudes were affected by the status manipulation when teachers made functional use of the novel groups. Children who were members of high-status (but not low-status) groups developed in-group biased attitudes.