Search

Nationwide, prison populations have declined nearly 5% from their peak, and 16 states have seen double-digit declines. It is unclear, though, how decarceration has affected racial disparities. Using national data, we find substantial variation in state prison populations from 2005–2018, with increases in some states and declines in others. However, although declines in the overall state prison population were associated with declines for all groups, states with rising prison populations experienced slight upticks in prison rates among the white population, while rates among Black and Latinx populations declined. As a result, greater progress in overall decarceration within states did not translate to larger reductions in racial disparities. At the same time, we do not find evidence that a decline in prison populations is associated with a rise in jail incarceration for any racial/ethnic group. In additional exploratory analyses, we suggest that recent incarceration trends may be driven by changes in returns to prison for probation and parole violations, rather than commitments for new crimes. Our results make clear that while efforts to reverse mass incarceration have reduced the size of prison populations in some states, they have not yet made substantial progress in resolving the crisis of race in American criminal justice.

Service providers have often used the mantra of “service with a smile” as a strategy to engender customer satisfaction. The findings of the current research indicate that a smile alone may not be sufficient in achieving service excellence. Specifically, this work extends prior research suggesting that customers have more positive reactions to Duchenne, or authentic, smiles compared to non-Duchenne, or non-genuine, smiles. Two experimental vignette studies examined the influence of the type of smile a service provider displays (Duchenne vs. non-Duchenne) and gender of the service provider on perceptions of service quality, as well as the Stereotype Content Model dimensions of competence and warmth. The results suggest that the type of smile (Duchenne vs. non-Duchenne) impacts evaluations of service providers in terms of their perceived level of competence, as well as their perceived service quality ratings. Implications for the hiring and training of service providers are also discussed.

Background The jurisdiction where an offense is prosecuted significantly affects the severity of punishment for drug possession, creating geographic disparities in exposure to a social determinant of health. In California, felony conviction rates after drug possession arrests have historically varied enormously between counties. California Proposition 47 (Prop-47), passed in 2014, reduced drug possession offenses previously classified as felonies or wobblers (offenses for which prosecutors have discretion to file felony or misdemeanor charges) to misdemeanors. This study examines whether geographic variation in felony convictions after drug possession arrests was reduced, and whether effects were offset by changes in felony convictions for other offenses not addressed by Prop-47. Methods Arrests made after the implementation of Prop-47 were propensity score matched to similar arrests prior to Prop-47 to account for compositional changes in arrests. This approach compares the outcomes of individuals likely to be arrested with or without the reclassification of drug offenses. We used mixed models to estimate the change in county variance in the probability of felony conviction. Results The probability of a felony conviction among those arrested for Prop-47 drug offenses declined by 14 percentage points (95% CI: −0.16, −0.12), from 0.20 (95% CI: 0.18, 0.23) to 0.06 (95% CI: 0.06, 0.07). Counties with higher felony conviction probabilities pre-Prop-47 declined most, reducing cross-county variance. For those arrested for drug offenses unaffected by Prop-47, the probability of felony conviction declined by 7 percentage points (95% CI: −0.08, −0.05), from 0.34 (95% CI: 0.31, 0.37) to 0.27 (0.25, 0.29). Declines in both groups were driven by fewer felony convictions for Prop-47 drug offenses, with no increases in felony convictions for concurrent offenses. Conclusion Reducing offense classifications for drug possession reduced previously large differences in the probability of felony convictions for people arrested for drug offenses in different counties.

Objectives. To evaluate the effects of California Proposition 47, which reclassified felony drug offenses to misdemeanors in 2014, on racial/ethnic disparities in drug arrests. Methods. Using data on all drug arrests made in California from 2011 to 2016, we compared racial/ethnic disparities in drug arrests between Whites, Blacks, and Latinos, immediately and 1 year after policy changes, controlling for secular and seasonal trends. Results. In the month following passage, absolute Black–White disparities in monthly felony drug arrests decreased from 81 to 44 per 100 000 and continued to decrease over time. There was an immediate increase of 27% in the relative disparity, however, because a higher proportion of felony offense types among Whites was reclassified. Total drug arrest rates also declined, suggesting drug law enforcement was deprioritized. During the first year after enactment, felony drug arrests fell by an estimated 51 985 among Whites, 15 028 among Blacks, and 50 113 among Latinos. Conclusions. Reducing criminal penalties for drug possession can reduce racial/ethnic disparities in criminal justice exposure and has implications for improving health inequalities linked to social determinants of health.

While South Africa provides universal access to treatment, HIV testing and antiretroviral therapy (ART) uptake remains low, particularly among men. Little is known about community awareness of the effects of treatment on preventing transmission, and how this information might impact HIV service utilization. This qualitative study explored understandings of treatment as prevention (TasP) among rural South African men. Narratives emphasized the known value of ART for individual health, but none were aware of its preventive effects. Many expressed that preventing transmission to partners would incentivize testing, earlier treatment, and adherence in the absence of symptoms, and could reduce the weight of a diagnosis. Doubts about TasP impacts on testing and care included enduring risks of stigma and transmission. TasP information should be integrated into clinic-based counseling for those utilizing services, and community-based education for broader reach. Pairing TasP information with alternative testing options may increase engagement among men reluctant to be seen at clinics.

To quantify user variability and manufacturer variability in urinary catheter anchoring balloon inflation pressure and to mitigate any significant variance by incorporating flow resistance into the anchoring balloon inflation process.Inflation of a urinary catheter anchoring balloon was performed at atmospheric pressure by different users (n = 8) to investigate user variability. A calibrated pressure transducer measured inflation pressures, and a video extensometer measured balloon inflation profiles. Manufacturer variability was investigated by applying constant forces to the plunger of conventional syringes to mimic "heavy-," "intermediate-," and "light"-handed users for 3 brands of catheter. Flow restrictors of variable reduced cross-sectional areas were introduced to the outflow of the inflation syringes to investigate the effect of flow resistance on anchoring balloon inflation profiles.Variations in maximum inflation pressures (range: 75-355 kPa) were observed among the different users. There were no significant differences in maximum inflation pressure between brands at any of the 3 simulated hand forces (P = .97). Increasing the flow resistance significantly reduces the applicable inflation pressure of all hand forces (P .001). Specifically, the difference in inflation pressure between heavy- and light-handed forces is reduced from over 405 kPa to under 65 kPa. Introducing flow resistance does not result in a significant difference in inflation pressure between brands (P = .254).There is significant user variability in urinary catheter balloon inflation pressure. This variation can be significantly reduced by introducing flow resistance to the inflation technique.

Research has sought to explain the multi-dimensionality of conflict and its paradoxical effects on decision making (Amason, 1996; DeDreu and Weingart, 2003; Jehn, 1995). The primary prescription to emerge from this work has been for teams to seek the benefits of cognitive (task) conflict while simultaneously avoiding the costs of affective (emotional) conflict. The problem is that these two types of conflict often occur together and researchers have offered few explanations as to why this happens or guidance as to how it can be avoided. In this paper, we provide empirical evidence that cognitive conflict can contribute to affective conflict. As a result, by encouraging cognitive conflict, teams may inadvertently provoke affective conflict. We provide evidence that behavioural integration can mitigate this tendency.

Executive Overview Research on corporate boards and board reform efforts alike have been dominated by a concern for board independence and its effect on the monitoring of the CEO. However, attention to what we call the “usual suspects”—the number of outsiders on boards, director shareholdings, board size, and whether the CEO also holds the Chair position (CEO duality)—does not yield either strong research results or more robust corporate governance in practice. In this article we argue that the “usual suspects,” as measured by the classic indicators, do not ensure a truly independent board and that the key to making boards work better rests in an area largely ignored by researchers: board process. Based on structured interviews with members of corporate boards, we open a window to what is really going on inside boardrooms. Our analysis suggests five critical goals for which all boards should strive and presents a detailed checklist of recommendations for directors on how best to realize these goals.

The subjective ratings of 21 nighttime-fearful children to short phrases with nighttime-fearful content were compared with the ratings of 21 children who exhibited little or no fear at nighttime. Coping responses and parental reports of nighttime fear behavior were also compared. Overall, children reported using self-control more than the other coping categories of social support: clinging to inanimate objects; avoidance or escape — control over inanimate environment; and avoidance or escape — control over others. Fearful children reported more coping behaviors than nonfearful children. Children's reports indicated that the nighttime fear category of security — personal life, loss, or safety was the most highly feared category by all groups. Nighttime fearful children rated as more fearful the categories of imaginal-numinous, inherent characteristics, and the dark than did the non-nighttime-fearful children. The categories of security — personal life, loss, and safety; security — separation or loss of others; dreams; and neutral failed to differentiate the two groups.

Five boys and two girls, 8 to 12 years of age, with severe night time fears of long duration, participated with their parents in three instruction sessions of self-control training for home-based practice. The parents supervised, monitored and rewarded with praise and “bravery tokens” their children's self-control exercises practiced nightly before bed, i.e., (1) muscle relaxation; (2) imaging a pleasant scene, and (3) reciting special “brave” self-statements. The long-standing, highly resistant problems of night time fears were solved for all families. No newfears or other problems occurred over the three-month, six-month and one-year follow-ups.

SUMMARY In subjects capable of normal everyday activity, exercise has been shown to lower the serum digoxin concentration by increasing uptake into skeletal muscle. A randomized cross-over study of the effect on the serum digoxin concentration of treatments consisting of rest for, or exercise during, 30 min was carried out in 20 elderly patients undergoing rehabilitation. In one patient exercise was associated with a marked (40%) reduction in the serum digoxin concentration. In the remainder there was a very small, but statistically significant, fall in concentration in the exercise as compared with the rest period. Unexpectedly low serum digoxin concentrations in in-patients of geriatric units, may occasionally be an artefact due to temporary redistribution of digoxin.

SUMMARY Bioavailability describes both the rate and extent of drug absorption. The buccal absorption technique is a useful method for the examination of changed extent of drug absorption resulting from drug absorption interactions. The present work examined the usefulness of drug recovery profiles (after buccal absorption) in evaluating the rate of drug absorption. Recovery data, in the case of propranolol, did not change markedly after marked changes in the drug absorption rate, indicating that recovery profiles are a poor monitoring tool for changed absorption rates. The rate of drug absorption can be found using the buccal absorption method; however, this involves several different experiments on different days and, also, data must be found by measuring the drug in the absorption solution which also contains the interactant. The latter agent may interfere with drug assay procedures. The present work involved the model drug propranolol. Other drugs perhaps may behave differently.