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This book studies when a prime $p$ can be written in the form $x^{2} + ny^{2}$. It begins at an elementary level with results of Fermat and Euler and then discusses the work of Lagrange, Legendre and Gauss on quadratic reciprocity and the genus theory of quadratic forms. After exploring cubic and biquadratic reciprocity, the pace quickens with the introduction of algebraic number fields and class field theory. This leads to the concept of ring class field and a complete but abstract solution of $p = x^{2} + ny^{2}$. To make things more concrete, the book introduces complex multiplication and modular functions to give a constructive solution. The book ends with a discussion of elliptic curves and Shimura reciprocity. Along the way the reader will encounter some compelling history and marvelous formulas, together with a complete solution of the class number one problem for imaginary quadratic fields. The book is accessible to readers with modest backgrounds in number theory. In the third edition, the numerous exercises have been thoroughly checked and revised, and as a special feature, complete solutions are included. This makes the book especially attractive to readers who want to get an active knowledge of this wonderful part of mathematics.

The book has been prepared for the students appearing in various examinations and also for the students of plus two courses. Almost all questions of various engineering examinations have been solved in the simplest way.

This book gives an overview of affine diffusions, from Ornstein-Uhlenbeck processes to Wishart processes and it considers some related diffusions such as Wright-Fisher processes. It focuses on different simulation schemes for these processes, especially second-order schemes for the weak error. It also presents some models, mostly in the field of finance, where these methods are relevant and provides some numerical experiments. The book explains the mathematical background to understand affine diffusions and analyze the accuracy of the schemes.

This ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MATHEMATICS aims to be a reference work for all parts of mathe­ matics. It is a translation with updates and editorial comments of the Soviet Mathematical Encyclopaedia published by'Soviet Encyclopaedia Publishing House'in five volumes in 1977-1985. The annotated translation consists of ten volumes including a special index volume. There are three kinds of articles in this ENCYCLOPAEDIA. First of all there are survey-type articles dealing with the various main directions in mathematics (where a rather fine subdivi­ sion has been used). The main requirement for these articles has been that they should give a reasonably complete up-to-date account of the current state of affairs in these areas and that they should be maximally accessible. On the whole, these articles should be understandable to mathematics students in their first specialization years, to graduates from other mathematical areas and, depending on the specific subject, to specialists in other domains of science, en­ gineers and teachers of mathematics. These articles treat their material at a fairly general level and aim to give an idea of the kind of problems, techniques and concepts involved in the area in question. They also contain background and motivation rather than precise statements of precise theorems with detailed definitions and technical details on how to carry out proofs and constructions. The second kind of article, of medium length, contains more detailed concrete problems, results and techniques.

Galois connections provide the order- or structure-preserving passage between two worlds of our imagination - and thus are inherent in hu­ man thinking wherever logical or mathematical reasoning about cer­ tain hierarchical structures is involved. Order-theoretically, a Galois connection is given simply by two opposite order-inverting (or order­ preserving) maps whose composition yields two closure operations (or one closure and one kernel operation in the order-preserving case). Thus, the'hierarchies'in the two opposite worlds are reversed or transported when passing to the other world, and going forth and back becomes a stationary process when iterated. The advantage of such an'adjoint situation'is that information about objects and relationships in one of the two worlds may be used to gain new information about the other world, and vice versa. In classical Galois theory, for instance, properties of permutation groups are used to study field extensions. Or, in algebraic geometry, a good knowledge of polynomial rings gives insight into the structure of curves, surfaces and other algebraic vari­ eties, and conversely. Moreover, restriction to the'Galois-closed'or'Galois-open'objects (the fixed points of the composite maps) leads to a precise'duality between two maximal subworlds'.

VI Eine Bitte des Autors Für Hinweise und Anregungen - insbesondere auch aus dem Kreis der Studenten - bin ich stets dankbar. Ein Wort des Dankes... an die Mitarbeiter des Vieweg-Verlages für die hervorragende Zusammenarbeit während der Entstehung und Drucklegung dieses Werkes,... an meine Rüsselsheimer Studenten (insbesondere aus dem Fachbereich Maschinenbau) für wertvolle Diskussionsbeiträge zur Gestaltung dieser Formelsammlung. Lothar Papula Wiesbaden, Juni 1986 VII Inhaltsverzeichnis I Allgemeine Grundlagen aus Algebra, Arithmetik und Geometrie........ 1 Grundlegende Begriffe über Mengen.................................... 1. 1 Definition und Darstellung einer Menge........................... 1 1. 2 Mengenoperationen........................................... 2 1. 3 Spezielle Zahlenmengen....................................... 2 2 Rechnen mit reellen Zahlen........................................... 3 2. 1 Reelle Zahlen und ihre Eigenschaften............................. 3 2. 1. 1 Rationale, irrationale und reelle Zahlen..................... 3 2. 1. 2 Rundungsregeln....................................... 3 2. 1. 3 Darstellung der reellen Zahlen auf der Zahlengerade........... 4 2. 1. 4 Grundrechenarten..................................... 4 2. 2 Intervalle................................................... 5 2. 3 Bruchrechnung.............................................. 5 2. 4 Potenzen und Wurzeln......................................... 7 2. 5 Logarithmen................................................ 8 2. 6 Binomischer Lehrsatz......................................... 9 3 Elementare (endliche) Reihen 11 3. 1 Definition einer Reihe 11 3. 2 Arithmetische Reihen 11 3. 3 Geometrische Reihen 11 12 3. 4 Spezielle Zahlenreihen 4 Gleichungen mit einer Unbekannten.................................... 12 4. 1 Algebraische Gleichungen...................................... 12 4. 1. 1 Allgemeine Vorbetrachtungen............................ 12 4. 1. 2 Lineare Gleichungen................................... 13 4. 1. 3 Quadratische Gleichungen............................... 13 4. 1. 4 Kubische Gleichungen.................................. 13 4. 1. 5 Bi-quadratische Gleichungen............................. 15 4. 2 Lösungshinweise flir nichtalgebraische Gleichungen.................. 16 4. 3 Graphisches Lösungsverfahren................................... 17 4. 4 Tangentenverfahren von Newton.................................

The book presents surveys describing recent developments in most of the primary subfields of General Topology, and its applications to Algebra and Analysis during the last decade, following the previous editions (North Holland, 1992 and 2002). The book was prepared in connection with the Prague Topological Symposium, held in 2011. During the last 10 years the focus in General Topology changed and therefore the selection of topics differs from that chosen in 2002. The following areas experienced significant developments: Fractals, Coarse Geometry/Topology, Dimension Theory, Set Theoretic Topology and Dynamical Systems.

Was ist Geometrie? Eine junge Dame, so gefragt, antwortet ohne Zögern:'Oh, das ist das, wo etwas bewiesen wird.'Gedrängt, ein Beispiel flir so ein zu beweisendes Etwas zu geben, mußte sie passen. Auch war ihr entgangen, warum es eine gute Sache war, etwas zu beweisen. Die Reaktion der Dame ist typisch für viele Menschen, die meinen, auf der Schule Geometrie gelernt zu haben. Sie vergessen alle die Hauptsache und ver­ gegenwärtigen sich nicht, warum dieser Stoff durchgenommen worden ist. Das Vergessen der Sätze ist keine Tragödie. Wir vergessen vieles von dem, was wir während unserer Schulzeit lernten - oder sollte ich sagen, was uns dort begegnete? Nichtsdesto­ weniger ist es bedauerlich, wenn ein ganzer Unterricht so langweilig ist, daß es nicht gelingt, irgendetwas daraus in dem Gedächtnis der Schüler einzuprägen. Zugegeben, die traditionelle Geometrie war selbst an diesem Mangel schuld (und ist es noch). Und warum wurde sie gelehrt? Weil man meinte, dem jungen Menschen ein einheitliches logisches System auf einem ihm gemäßen Niveau bieten zu müssen. Vermutlich erreichten einige Schüler das gewünschte Ziel, aber viele andere wurden so durch die Einzelheiten abge­ lenkt, daß sie den Blick für die Hauptsache verloren.

§1 Faced by the questions mentioned in the Preface I was prompted to write this book on the assumption that a typical reader will have certain characteristics. He will presumably be familiar with conventional accounts of certain portions of mathematics and with many so-called mathematical statements, some of which (the theorems) he will know (either because he has himself studied and digested a proof or because he accepts the authority of others) to be true, and others of which he will know (by the same token) to be false. He will nevertheless be conscious of and perturbed by a lack of clarity in his own mind concerning the concepts of proof and truth in mathematics, though he will almost certainly feel that in mathematics these concepts have special meanings broadly similar in outward features to, yet different from, those in everyday life; and also that they are based on criteria different from the experimental ones used in science. He will be aware of statements which are as yet not known to be either true or false (unsolved problems). Quite possibly he will be surprised and dismayed by the possibility that there are statements which are'definite'(in the sense of involving no free variables) and which nevertheless can never (strictly on the basis of an agreed collection of axioms and an agreed concept of proof) be either proved or disproved (refuted).

Aus den Rezensionen der englischen Ausgabe:'..wie in der Biographie über N(iels) H(enrik) Abel vom gleichen Autor (...) ist auch dieses Buch von Stubhaug hne eine einzige Formel oder präzise mathematische Definition. Was aber Stubhaug uns durch seine umfangreichen Nachforschungen, hauptsächlich in Briefen Lies an seine Frau, an seine Freunde in Norwegen und Briefe an und von seinen Kollegen, mitteilen kann, lässt in vielen Einzelheiten, Stück für Stück, ein breiteres Bild von Lie, der wissenschaftlichen und politischen Situation Norwegens zu Lies Zeit, und des wissenschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Lebens an Lies Wirkungsstätten entstehen.... Das Buch bringt allen großen Gewinn, die sich für Sophus Lie und seine Zeit interessieren. Insbesondere erfährt man viel über den wissenschaftlichen Kontakt zwischen Lie und anderen mathematischen Größen der damaligen Zeit wie Klein, Kummer, Study, Darboux, Poincare und anderen....'E. Vogt, http://www.mathematik.de

This ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MATHEMATICS aims to be a reference work for all parts of mathe­ matics. It is a translation with updates and editorial comments of the Soviet Mathematical Encyclopaedia published by'Soviet Encyclopaedia Publishing House'in five volumes in 1977-1985. The annotated translation consists of ten volumes including a special index volume. There are three kinds of articles in this ENCYCLOPAEDIA. First of all there are survey-type articles dealing with the various main directions in mathematics (where a rather fine subdivi­ sion has been used). The main requirement for these articles has been that they should give a reasonably complete up-to-date account of the current state of affairs in these areas and that they should be maximally accessible. On the whole, these articles should be understandable to mathematics students in their first specialization years, to graduates from other mathematical areas and, depending on the specific subject, to specialists in other domains of science, en­ gineers and teachers of mathematics. These articles treat their material at a fairly general level and aim to give an idea of the kind of problems, techniques and concepts involved in the area in question. They also contain background and motivation rather than precise statements of precise theorems with detailed definitions and technical details on how to carry out proofs and constructions. The second kind of article, of medium length, contains more detailed concrete problems, results and techniques.

Vorwort zur dritten Auflage Auch in der dritten Auflage haben die von HURWITZ herrührenden beiden ersten Abschnitte keine Änderungen erfahren, abgesehen von Verbesserungen und Ergänzungen in Einzelheiten. Der dritte Abschnitt jedoch ist wiederum in vielen Punkten erweitert und umgestaltet worden. Es soll dadurch erreicht werden, daß er eine wirklich vollständig un­ abhängig von den vorangehenden Abschnitten lesbare Darstellung der Funktionentheorie vom geometrischen Standpunkt aus gibt und auch den Zugang zu den neueren Spezialforschungen öffnet. Eine kleine Ver­ mehrung des Umfanges war dabei nicht zu vermeiden. Göttingen, im Oktober 1929. R. COURANT. Vorwort zur vierten Auflage Seit dem Erscheinen der dritten Auflage ist die Theorie der Funk­ tionen einer komplexen Veränderlichen in mancher Hinsicht weiter ent­ wickelt worden, vielfach in der Richtung auf größere Allgemeinheit und Abstraktion in der Form sowie in der Substanz. Als der Wunsch nach einer neuen Auflage von vielen Seiten ausgedrückt wurde, schien es un­ tunlich, einen veränderten Neudruck vorzulegen; das Problem entstand, wie den neueren Entwicklungen Rechnung getragen werden könnte, ohne den spezifischen Charakter des Werkes zu beeeinträchtigen.

In the last years, it was observed an increasing interest of computer scientists in the structure of biological molecules and the way how they can be manipulated in vitro in order to define theoretical models of computation based on genetic engineering tools. Along the same lines, a parallel interest is growing regarding the process of evolution of living organisms. Much of the current data for genomes are expressed in the form of maps which are now becoming available and permit the study of the evolution of organisms at the scale of genome for the first time. On the other hand, there is an active trend nowadays throughout the field of computational biology toward abstracted, hierarchical views of biological sequences, which is very much in the spirit of computational linguistics. In the last decades, results and methods in the field of formal language theory that might be applied to the description of biological sequences were pointed out.

This is the second supplementary volume to Kluwer's highly acclaimed eleven-volume Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. This additional volume contains nearly 500 new entries written by experts and covers developments and topics not included in the previous volumes. These entries are arranged alphabetically throughout and a detailed index is included. This supplementary volume enhances the existing eleven volumes, and together these twelve volumes represent the most authoritative, comprehensive and up-to-date Encyclopaedia of Mathematics available.

This book is an outgrowth of the activities of the Center for Geometry and Mathematical Physics (CGMP) at Penn State from 1996 to 1998. The Center was created in the Mathematics Department at Penn State in the fall of 1996 for the purpose of promoting and supporting the activities of researchers and students in and around geometry and physics at the university. The CGMP brings many visitors to Penn State and has ties with other research groups; it organizes weekly seminars as well as annual workshops The book contains 17 contributed articles on current research topics in a variety of fields: symplectic geometry, quantization, quantum groups, algebraic geometry, algebraic groups and invariant theory, and character­ istic classes. Most of the 20 authors have talked at Penn State about their research. Their articles present new results or discuss interesting perspec­ tives on recent work. All the articles have been refereed in the regular fashion of excellent scientific journals. Symplectic geometry, quantization and quantum groups is one main theme of the book. Several authors study deformation quantization. As­ tashkevich generalizes Karabegov's deformation quantization of Kahler manifolds to symplectic manifolds admitting two transverse polarizations, and studies the moment map in the case of semisimple coadjoint orbits. Bieliavsky constructs an explicit star-product on holonomy reducible sym­ metric coadjoint orbits of a simple Lie group, and he shows how to con­ struct a star-representation which has interesting holomorphic properties.

This book offers an introduction to the mathematical, probabilistic and numerical methods used in the modern theory of option pricing. The text is designed for readers with a basic mathematical background. The first part contains a presentation of the arbitrage theory in discrete time. In the second part, the theories of stochastic calculus and parabolic PDEs are developed in detail and the classical arbitrage theory is analyzed in a Markovian setting by means of of PDEs techniques. After the martingale representation theorems and the Girsanov theory have been presented, arbitrage pricing is revisited in the martingale theory optics. General tools from PDE and martingale theories are also used in the analysis of volatility modeling. The book also contains an Introduction to Lévy processes and Malliavin calculus. The last part is devoted to the description of the numerical methods used in option pricing: Monte Carlo, binomial trees, finite differences and Fourier transform.

Vladimir Arnold is one of the greatest mathematical scientists of our time, as well as one of the finest, most prolific mathematical authors. This first volume of his Collected Works focuses on representations of functions, celestial mechanics and KAM theory.

The European Conference on Numerical Mathematics and Advanced Applications (ENUMATH) is a series of conferences held every two years to provide a forum for discussion on recent aspects of numerical mathematics and their applications. The?rst ENUMATH conference was held in Paris (1995), and the series continued by the one in Heidelberg (1997), Jyvaskyla (1999), Ischia (2001), Prague (2003), and Santiago de Compostela (2005). This volume contains a selection of invited plenary lectures, papers presented in minisymposia, and contributed papers of ENUMATH 2007, held in Graz, Austria, September 10–14, 2007. We are happy that so many people have shown their interest in this conference. In addition to the ten invited presentations and the public lecture, we had more than 240 talks in nine minisymposia and?fty four sessions of contributed talks, and about 316 participants from all over the world, specially from Europe. A total of 98 contributions appear in these proceedings. Topics include theoretical aspects of new numerical techniques and algorithms, as well as to applications in engineering and science. The book will be useful for a wide range of readers, giving them an excellent overview of the most modern methods, techniques, algorithms and results in numerical mathematics, scienti?c computing and their applications. We would like to thank all the participants for the attendance and for their va- ablecontributionsanddiscussionsduringtheconference.Specialthanksgothe m- isymposium organizers, who made a large contribution to the conference, the chair persons, and all speakers.

There seems to be two types of books on inequalities. On the one hand there are treatises that attempt to cover all or most aspects of the subject, and where an attempt is made to give all results in their best possible form, together with either a full proof or a sketch of the proof together with references to where a full proof can be found. Such books, aimed at the professional pure and applied mathematician, are rare. The first such, that brought some order to this untidy field, is the classical'Inequalities'of Hardy, Littlewood & P6lya, published in 1934. Important as this outstanding work was and still is, it made no attempt at completeness; rather it consisted of the total knowledge of three front rank mathematicians in a field in which each had made fundamental contributions. Extensive as this combined knowledge was there were inevitably certain lacunre; some important results, such as Steffensen's inequality, were not mentioned at all; the works of certain schools of mathematicians were omitted, and many important ideas were not developed, appearing as exercises at the ends of chapters. The later book'Inequalities'by Beckenbach & Bellman, published in 1961, repairs many of these omissions. However this last book is far from a complete coverage of the field, either in depth or scope.