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The present study investigated the structure of the Spanish version of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM-E), an 11-item measure that assesses individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO), i.e., the extent to which people compare themselves with others. Data came from samples from Spain (n = 1,133) and Chile (n = 2,757). Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Mokken Scale Analyses supported in both samples not the assumed two-factor structure, but a single factor structure, consisting of eight items. The resulting eight-item version of the INCOM-E was reliable in both samples, according the Gutmann’s lambda–2 (.82 in Spain and .83 in Chile), and correlated very strongly with the full-length INCOM-E (.93 in Spain and .97 in Chile). In both samples, there were significant sex differences, ps < .001 with small effect sizes, ƞ2 in both samples = .01,but in the Spanish sample women scored higher, and in the Chilean sample men scored higher in SCO. The relationship with age was negative and significant (ps < .001) in both samples, albeit small (r = .22 in Spain and .13 in Chile) Based on the present research, it is advised to use the shortened eight-item version of the INCOM-E in Spanish speaking countries.

The present study examined rival characteristics that may evoke jealousy in the workplace, differences between men and women in this regard, and the relationship between jealousy responses and intrasexual competitiveness and social comparison orientation. Participants were 426 male and female employees. By means of a questionnaire, participants were presented with a jealousy-evoking scenario after which jealousy responses to 24 rival characteristics were assessed. Findings showed that a rival's social communal attributes evoked highest levels of jealousy, and that, compared to men, women reported more jealousy in response to a rival's physical attractiveness. Overall, as individuals had higher scores on intrasexual competitiveness and social comparison orientation, they also experienced more jealousy in response to their rival, regardless of his or her characteristics. These findings suggest that those characteristics that are highly valued in employees may backfire when employees perceive co-workers as rivals.

Globalization and interdependencies among nations require a better understanding of the influence of culture on organizational processes. In order to succeed in global business, leaders have to respond to practices that may be different in diverse cultures. This study was conducted within the framework of the leader member exchange approach and from a positive perspective of organizations linking successful businesses and workers&rsquo, well-being. The aim of this study was to examine whether the quality of the relationship with the leader predicts engagement and life satisfaction, and whether resilience moderates this relationship in two different cultural contexts (Spanish and Chinese). The sample was composed of 277 workers (127 Chinese workers corresponding to a vertical-collectivistic culture and 150 Spanish workers representing a horizontal-individualistic culture). To test the hypotheses, a structural equations model (SEM) was conducted using the maximum likelihood (ML) estimation method. Results revealed that leader-member exchange (LMX) positively predicts engagement and life satisfaction and that the moderator role of resilience varies across cultures. Resilience moderated the relationship between LMX and engagement and life satisfaction only in the Spanish sample. In the Chinese sample, resilience only moderated the relation between LMX and life satisfaction. Finally, our study contributes to a better understanding of the relationship between leaders and subordinates operating in a global context.

Envy is a frequent emotion in work contexts where there is strong competition for resources and the leader is the person who manages them. When employees feel envy, they are likely to use counterproductive work behaviors (CWB), but the use of these behaviors may differ depending on the organization&rsquo, s ownership. The goal of this study is to develop and test a model for the moderating role of Leader Member Exchange (LMX) in the relationship between envy and CWB in public and private organizations. The study design was cross-sectional. Data were collected from 225 Spanish employees in public and private organizations and analyzed using Path Analysis techniques. Results showed that envy was positively related to CWB, and that LMX was a significant moderator in the relationship between envy and CWB in public organizations, but not in private ones. However, this relationship is positive with high LMX, but less than in subjects with low LMX. Findings provide empirical support for the hypothesized conceptual model. This study is one of the first to explore LMX as a moderator of the relationship between envy and CWB. Thus, this study adds value to previous social exchange studies on LMX by integrating emotion research into the context of an exchange-based relationship. Our findings lead to several practical implications for creating healthy organizations.

Manipulative techniques have shown promising results for relief of tension-type headache (TTH), however prior studies either lacked a control group, or suffered from poor methodological quality. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of spinal manipulation combined with massage versus massage alone on range of motion of the cervical spine, headache frequency, intensity and disability in patients with TTH.Randomized, single-blinded, controlled clinical trial.University clinic.We enrolled 105 subjects with TTH.Participants were divided into two groups: 1) manipulation and massage; 2) massage only (control). Four treatment sessions were applied over four weeks. The Headache Disability Inventory (HDI) and range of upper cervical and cervical motion were evaluated at baseline, immediately after the intervention and at a follow-up, 8 weeks after completing the intervention.Both groups demonstrated a large (ƒ=1.22) improvement on their HDI scores. Those that received manipulation reported a medium-sized reduction (ƒ=0.33) in headache frequency across all data points (P0.05) compared to the control group. Both groups showed a large within-subject effect for upper cervical extension (ƒ=0.62), a medium-sized effect for cervical extension (ƒ=0.39), and large effects for upper cervical (ƒ=1.00) and cervical (ƒ=0.27) flexion. The addition of manipulation resulted in larger gains of upper cervical flexion range of motion, and this difference remained stable at the follow-up.These findings support the benefit of treating TTH with either massage or massage combined with a manipulative technique. However, the addition of manipulative technique was more effective for increasing range of motion of the upper cervical spine and for reducing the impact of headache.Although massage provided relief of headache in TTH sufferers, when combined with cervical manipulation, there was a stronger effect on range of upper cervical spine motion.

In the present study in secondary schools and hospitals in Uruguay ( N = 187), we examined the relationship between feeling the victim of mobbing and a perceived loss of status. Nearly all forms of mobbing were more prevalent among hospital employees than among school employees. Among hospital employees, 40.4%, and among school employees, 23.9% reported being the victim of mobbing at least once a week. Being the victim of mobbing was, in both hospitals and schools, more prevalent among older employees, and in hospitals, among employees who were more highly educated and who had been employed for a longer time. Men and women did not differ in reporting that one was a victim of mobbing, but men reported more perceived loss of status than women. However, among women, being the victim of mobbing was much more strongly related to experiencing a loss of status than among men. Several explanations for this gender difference and the practical and theoretical implications of the results are discussed.

The primary objective of this study was to explore the mechanisms and conditions whereby Tension-Type Headache (TTH) presenteeism relates to health-related loss of productivity as a result of both reduced physical and mental health. To this end, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to conduct a secondary data analysis of a randomized clinical trial involving 78 Tension-type Headache (TTH) patients. The results showed that TTH presenteeism did not directly relate to health-related loss of productivity, either due to physical, or mental health problems. However, through anxiety-state, TTH presenteeism decreased patients' productivity, as consequence of reduced physical and mental health. Moreover, by increasing the severity of the Tension-Type Headache, TTH presenteeism indirectly decreased patients' productivity as consequence of reduced physical health (but not mental health). Finally, our results show that such indirect effects only occur when the cause of TTH is non-mechanical (e.g., hormonal causes, etc.). Our work provides an integrative model that can inform organizational behaviorists and health professionals (e.g., physiotherapists). Implications for organizational health are discussed.

This study addressed the question whether the affect evoked by social comparisons and individual differences in social comparison orientation (SCO) may predict the development of burnout over a period of one year. The participants were 93 nurses (25 males and 68 females) who filled out a questionnaire twice, with an interval of about one year. Comparisons with others performing better than oneself (upward comparisons) were reported to occur more often, to evoke more positive affect, and to invoke less negative affect than comparisons with others performing worse than oneself (downward comparisons). Those who responded at Time 1 (T1) with more positive affect to upward comparison and with less negative affect to downward comparisons, showed a decrease in burnout at Time 2 (T2). In addition, those who responded with relatively more negative affect to upward comparisons at T1, showed an increase in burnout at T2, but only when they were high in SCO. It is concluded that in this population upward comparisons were more prevalent than, and evoked more favorable responses than, downward comparisons. The most important conclusion is that the affect evoked by social comparisons may predict future changes in burnout.

The present research examined comparison targets and comparison dimensions among two Spanish samples of individuals facing serious illnesses and diseases. In Study 1, 90 older patients (mean age 66.36) with various age-related diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, indicated that they compared themselves most often with others with the same disease, next with others with another disease and least with people without health problems. They compared themselves more often on their mental state, symptoms and physical activities than on their social activities. Social comparison orientation (SCO) as an individual difference characteristic was associated with more frequent comparisons with particularly similar targets, and with more frequent comparisons of one's symptoms and physical activities. Neuroticism was correlated only with more comparisons of one's symptoms. Study 2 was conducted in a sample of 70 relatively young patients (mean age 43.97) with spinal cord injury (SCI). Overall, they compared themselves more often with others than the participants in Study I, and they compared themselves to a similar extent with people with SCI as with people with another disease and with people without health problems. While they felt on average better off than people with other diseases and other people with SCI, people with SCI felt on average worse off than people without health problems. They compared themselves more often on physical activities than on any other dimension. Higher levels of stress and uncertainty were associated with more frequent comparisons with people without SCI, and with more frequent comparisons of one's mental state, one's symptoms and one's future perspectives. The discussion focuses on the theoretical relevance of the results for social comparison theory, and on the practical relevance of the findings for interventions.

From the perspective of reciprocal altruism, we examined the role of reciprocity in the close relationships of people inflicted with a spinal cord injury (SCI) ( n = 70). We focused on the help receiver rather than on the help giver. Participants perceived more reciprocity in relationships with friends than in relationships with the partner and with family members. In these last relationships, perceptions of indebtedness were more prevalent than perceptions of deprivation. However, most negative feelings were evoked by a lack of reciprocity in partner relationships, followed by family relationships, and next by friendships. Moreover, depression was especially associated with a lack of perceived reciprocity in the relationships with family, and somewhat less with a lack of perceived reciprocity in the relationship with the partner. These results underline the importance of reciprocity in relationships, but suggest that reciprocity may be more, rather than less important in partner and family relationships.