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Foamy viruses are complex retroviruses that have been shown to be transmitted from nonhuman primates to humans. In Bangladesh, infection with simian foamy virus (SFV) is ubiquitous among rhesus macaques, which come into contact with humans in diverse locations and contexts throughout the country. We analyzed microsatellite DNA from 126 macaques at six sites in Bangladesh in order to characterize geographic patterns of macaque population structure. We also included in this study 38 macaques owned by nomadic people who train them to perform for audiences. PCR was used to analyze a portion of the proviral gag gene from all SFV-positive macaques, and multiple clones were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis was used to infer long-term patterns of viral transmission. Analyses of SFV gag gene sequences indicated that macaque populations from different areas harbor genetically distinct strains of SFV, suggesting that geographic features such as forest cover play a role in determining the dispersal of macaques and SFV. We also found evidence suggesting that humans traveling the region with performing macaques likely play a role in the translocation of macaques and SFV. Our studies found that individual animals can harbor more than one strain of SFV and that presence of more than one SFV strain is more common among older animals. Some macaques are infected with SFV that appears to be recombinant. These findings paint a more detailed picture of how geographic and sociocultural factors influence the spectrum of simian-borne retroviruses.

Herpesvirus B (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) has been implicated as the cause of approximately 40 cases of meningoencephalitis affecting persons in direct or indirect contact with laboratory macaques. However, the threat [...]

Rationale: Prolonged exposure to the stress hormone cortisol can precipitate a catabolic state in animals resulting in a negative nitrogen balance and increased excreted nitrogen, possibly affecting stable nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios in animal tissues. Here we test the hypothesis that stress, as measured by hair cortisol, is a significant contributor to variation in δ15N and δ13C values in hair. The results of the present study have important implications for the use of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios measured in animal and human tissues to make inferences regarding feeding ecology and diet. Methods: Samples containing roughly 10–20 hairs (approx. 4–6 cm long) were collected from 49 free ranging macaque monkeys (Macaca sylvanus) in Gibraltar. Hair samples were analyzed for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes by continuous‐flow isotope‐ratio mass spectrometry. Cortisol extracted from matched hair samples was measured using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Cortisol and stable isotope ratios were compared statistically using nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney U tests, as well as Spearman correlation. Results: Correlation analysis revealed that although hair δ15N and δ13C values were significantly correlated with each other, neither was correlated with cortisol concentrations. Cortisol concentrations were not correlated with age‐adjusted body mass index. Age category was correlated with δ13C values but not with δ15N values. Conclusions: The results of our study suggest that the cumulative stress experienced by these macaques under typical social and environmental conditions is not a significant contributor to variation in δ15N and δ13C values, nor does it have a significant effect on relative body mass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Survey results showed treponemal infection among pet macaques in Southeast Asia, a region with a high prevalence of human yaws. This finding, along with studies showing treponemal infection in nonhuman primates in Africa, should encourage a One Health approach to yaws eradication and surveillance activities, possibly including monitoring of nonhuman primates in yaws-endemic regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine whether nonhuman primates are infected with influenza viruses in nature, we conducted serologic and swab studies among macaques from several parts of the world. Our detection of influenza virus and antibodies to influenza virus raises questions about the role of nonhuman primates in the ecology of influenza. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex ( MTBC) infects a third of all humans, little is known regarding the prevalence of mycobacterial infection in nonhuman primates ( NHP). For more than a century, tuberculosis has been regarded as a serious infectious threat to NHP species. Advances in the detection of MTBC open new possibilities for investigating the effects of this poorly understood pathogen in diverse populations of NHP. Here, we report results of a cross-sectional study using well-described molecular methods to detect a nucleic acid sequence ( IS 6110) unique to the MTBC. Sample collection was focused on the oral cavity, the presumed route of transmission of MTBC. Buccal swabs were collected from 263 macaques representing 11 species in four Asian countries and Gibraltar. Contexts of contact with humans included free ranging, pets, performing monkeys, zoos, and monkey temples. Following DNA isolation from buccal swabs, the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR) amplified IS 6110 from 84 (31.9%) of the macaques. In general, prevalence of MTBC DNA was higher among NHP in countries where the World Health Organization reports higher prevalence of humans infected with MTBC. This is the first demonstration of MTBC DNA in the mouths of macaques. Further research is needed to establish the significance of this finding at both the individual and population levels. PCR of buccal samples holds promise as a method to elucidate the mycobacterial landscape among NHP, particularly macaques that thrive in areas of high human MTBC prevalence. Am. J. Primatol. 74:676-686, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The retroviral restriction factor TRIMCyp, which is a fusion protein derived from the TRIM5 gene, blocks replication at a postentry step. Among Old World primates, TRIMCyp has been found in four species of Asian macaques, but not in African monkeys. To further define the evolutionary origin of Old World TRIMCyp, we examined two species of baboons (genus Papio) and three additional macaque species, including M. sylvanus, which is the only macaque species found outside Asia, and represents the earliest diverging branch of the macaque lineage. None of four P. cynocephalus anubis, one P. hamadryas, and 36 M. sylvanus had either TRIMCyp mRNA or the genetic features required for its expression. M. sylvanus genomic sequences indicated that the lack of TRIMCyp in this species was not due to genetic homogeneity among specimens studied and revealed the existence of four TRIM5a alleles, all distinct from M. mulatta and Papio counterparts. Together with existing data on macaque evolution, our findings indicate that TRIMCyp evolved in the ancestors of Asian macaques approximately 5-6 million years before present (ybp), likely as a result of a retroviral threat. TRIMCyp then became fixed in the M. nemestrina lineage after it diverged from M. nigra, approximately 2 million ybp. The macaque lineage is unique among primates studied so far due to the presence and diversity of both TRIM5 and TRIMCyp restriction factors. Studies of these antiviral proteins may provide valuable information about natural antiviral mechanisms, and give further insight into the factors that shaped the evolution of macaque species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macaques are similar to humans both physiologically and behaviorally. In South and Southeast Asia they are also synanthropic, ecologically associated with humans. Synanthropy with humans raises the possibility that macaques come into contact with anthropogenic toxicants, such as lead and mercury, and might be appropriate sentinels for human exposures to certain toxic materials. We measured lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) levels and characterized the stable isotopic compositions of δ15N and δ13C in hair from three groups of free-ranging macaques at the Swoyambhu temple in Kathmandhu, Nepal, an urban population that has abundant contact with humans. Hair lead levels were significantly higher among young macaques and differed among the three groups of macaques that were sampled. Hair Hg levels were low. No statistical association was found between stable isotopic compositions (δ15N and δ13C) and Pb and Hg levels. Our data did not find evidence that lead levels were associated with diet. We conclude that, in this population of macaques, behavioral and/or physiologic factors may play a significant role in determining exposure to lead. Chemical analysis of hair is a promising, noninvasive technique for determining exposure to toxic elements in free-ranging nonhuman primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) interface in several locations in Singapore. We investigated six of these interface zones to assess the level of conflict between the two species. We observed macaque-to-human interactions and distributed questionnaires to residents and visitors of nature reserves. We observed an average of two macaque-to-human interactions per hour at the sites, which included affiliative or submissive behaviors (46.9%), aggression (19.1%), taking food and other items (18.5%) searching bins, cars, and houses (13.4%), and nonaggressive contact (2.1%). Two-thirds of interactions occurred when a human was carrying food or food cues, and one-quarter occurred when a human provoked macaques. Only 8% of interactions occurred without a clear human-triggered context. Our interview showed one-third of respondents experienced nuisance problems from macaques. They had items taken from them (50.5%) and received threats (31.9%). Residents reported more nuisance problems than visitors, and their perceptions toward macaques differed. Residents were more aware of the consequences of food provisioning and that there were regulations against feeding. Residents fed macaques less and held more negative sentiments toward macaques. Nearly half of the interviewed people held neutral attitudes toward macaques and only 26.2% of respondents thought conflict with macaques warranted urgent action. Nearly two-thirds of the respondents supported education programs to ameliorate human–macaque conflict, and less than 15% supported removing or eradicating macaques. 87.6% felt that it is importance to conserve and protect macaques. Our results show that human–macaque conflict exists in Singapore, but that it may not be severe. Human behavior is largely responsible for macaque-to-human interactions, and thus could be lessened with management of human behavior in interface zones (i.e. restrict food carrying and provocation). Moreover, our interviews shows people living in Singapore value macaques, do not wish them entirely removed, prefer education-based solutions, and consider conservation and protection of them important. Am. J. Primatol. 71:825–839, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have noted substantial human–macaque interactions involving physical contact in Bali, Indonesia; Gibraltar; and Mt. Emei, China [Fuentes, American Journal of Primatology 68:880–896, 2006; Zhao, Tibetan macaques, visitors, and local people at Mt. Emei: problems and countermeasures. In: Paterson and Wallis, editor. Commensalism and conflict: the human–primate interface. Norman, OK: American Society of Primatologists. p 376–399, 2005]. The aim of this study was to conduct preliminary observations in order to begin to characterize interaction patterns between humans and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Singapore. Unlike Bali, Gibraltar, and Mt. Emei, Singapore occasionally enforces fines and penalties and engages in an education campaign in an effort to minimize physical contact between humans and macaques. Observers stationed at two sites in Singapore conducted 92 5 hr of observation that included 730 human–macaque interactions over 16 days. Data recorded include interaction characteristics, demographic and behavioral variables, presence of feeding by humans, and presence of automobiles. Although feeding by humans was relatively infrequent overall, it generally occurred most often by individuals in cars and when human children were present. Data analysis suggests that interactions involving physical contact between macaques and humans are rare in Singapore, in contrast to the findings from Bali, Gibraltar, and Mt. Emei. This low level of physical contact suggests a low risk of macaque–human pathogen transmission in Singapore. Am. J. Primatol. 70:879–883, 2008. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because Gibraltar's macaques (Macaca sylvanus) have frequent contact with humans, we assayed 79 macaques for antibodies to enzootic primate viruses. All macaques were seronegative for herpesvirus B, simian T-cell lymphotropic virus, simian retrovirus, simian immunodeficiency virus, and rhesus cytomegalovirus. Seroprevalence of simian foamy virus reached 88% among adult animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This report describes the results from a study of thoracic radiographs taken on a sample (n = 20) of pet macaque monkeys ( Macaca) on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. We present findings relating to general thoracic health, as well as describe our field methods and outline some of the challenges of conducting thoracic radiography in remote areas of the developing world. Examination of the radiographic images identified six possible cases of cardiac enlargement, and one case of minor lung consolidation possibly consistent with tuberculosis. The study did not identify major radiographic evidence of significant respiratory illness in the monkeys as might be expected based on the intense exposure to human respiratory diseases. These largely negative findings may be in part a consequence of image quality which seems to be influenced by power output and incomplete inspiration during film exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crab-eating, or long-tailed, macaques [ Macaca fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)] have been studied extensively throughout their distribution in South and South-east Asia. Despite this extensive body of research, the island population of long-tailed macaques from Singapore remains virtually undescribed. In the present study, we compare the morphometric variability and patterns of growth observed in a population sample from Singapore with a composite sample from Thailand, north of the Isthmus of Kra. The results of our analyses indicate that there are statistically significant differences between the two populations in adult size and shape. For both males and females, the Singapore population is smaller than the Thai population. Relative to body length, the Singapore macaques exhibit significantly longer tails, and, relative to cranial length, they exhibit significantly more narrow faces than the Thai macaques. Although levels of sexual dimorphism for most morphometric traits are very similar, indicating similar levels of male–male competition for females, the Singapore males exhibit a significantly larger testicular volume relative to body weight, suggestive of an alternative male reproductive strategy. In addition to adult somatometric size and shape, comparisons of growth patterns relative to age and body size reveal significant differences between the two population samples. Combined, these results suggest either that statistically significant differences in adult morphology and patterns of growth can occur in presumably reproductively cohesive subspecies, or the Singapore macaques may be taxonomically distinct. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2007, 92, 675–694. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measles is a respiratory virus that is endemic to humans. Human–nonhuman primate (NHP) transmission of the measles virus has been shown to cause significant morbidity and mortality in NHP populations. We investigated serological evidence of exposure to measles virus in two free-ranging populations of macaques at the Bukit Timah (BTNR) and Central Catchment Nature (CCNR) reserves in Singapore and the Swoyambhu Temple in Katmandu, Nepal. At BTNR/CCNR none of the 38 macaques (Macaca fascicularis) sampled were seropositive for antibodies to measles virus. In contrast, at Swoyambhu 100% (n=39) of the macaques (M. mulatta) sampled were seropositive for antibodies to the measles virus. Here the contrasting seroprevalences of the two sites are analyzed using risk analysis. These case studies show how risk analysis can be used to approach the phenomenon of cross-species pathogen transmission. Am. J. Primatol. 68:868–879, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contact between humans and nonhuman primates (NHPs) frequently occurs at monkey temples (religious sites that have become associated with free-ranging populations of NHPs) in Asia, creating the potential for NHP–human disease transmission. In March 2003 a multidisciplinary panel of experts participated in a workshop designed to model the risk of NHP–human pathogen transmission. The panel developed a risk assessment model to describe the likelihood of cross-species transmission of simian foamy virus (SFV) from temple macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to visitors at monkey temples. SFV is an enzootic simian retrovirus that has been shown to be transmitted from NHPs to humans. In operationalizing the model field data, laboratory data and expert opinions were used to estimate the likelihood of SFV transmission within this context. This model sets the stage for a discussion about modeling as a risk assessment tool and the kinds of data that are required to accurately predict transmission. Am. J. Primatol. 68:934–948, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The threat of zoonotic transmission of infectious agents at monkey temples highlights the necessity of investigating the prevalence of enzootic infectious agents in these primate populations. Biological samples were collected from 39 rhesus macaques at the Swoyambhu Temple and tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blot, polymerase chain reaction, or combination of these tests for evidence of infection with rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV), Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (CHV-1), simian virus 40 (SV40), simian retrovirus (SRV), simian T-cell lymphotropic virus (STLV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and simian foamy virus (SFV). Antibody seroprevalence was 94.9% to RhCMV (37/39), 89.7% to SV40 (35/39), 64.1% to CHV-1 (25/39), and 97.4% to SFV (38/39). Humans who come into contact with macaques at Swoyambhu risk exposure to enzootic primateborne viruses. We discuss implications for public health and primate management strategies that would reduce contact between humans and primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indian-origin rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) have long served as an animal model for the study of human disease and behavior. Given the current shortage of Indian-origin rhesus, many researchers have turned to rhesus macaques from China as a substitute. However, a number of studies have identified marked genetic differences between the Chinese and Indian animals. We investigated the genetic characteristics of a third rhesus population, the rhesus macaques of Nepal. Twenty-one rhesus macaques at the Swoyambhu Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal, were compared with more than 300 Indian- and Chinese-origin rhesus macaques. The sequence analyses of two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) loci, from the HVS I and 12 S rRNA regions, showed that the Nepali animals were more similar to Indian-origin than to Chinese-origin animals. The distribution of alleles at 24 short tandem repeat (STR) loci distributed across 17 chromosomes also showed greater similarity between the Nepali and Indian-origin animals. Finally, an analysis of seven major histocompatibility complex (MHC) alleles showed that the Nepali animals expressed Class I alleles that are common to Indian-origin animals, including Mamu-A*01. All of these analyses also revealed a low level of genetic diversity within this Nepali rhesus sample. We conclude that the rhesus macaques of Nepal more closely resemble rhesus macaques of Indian origin than those of Chinese origin. As such, the Nepali rhesus may offer an additional resource option for researchers who wish to maintain research protocols with animals that possess key genetic features characteristic of Indian-origin rhesus macaques. Am. J. Primatol. 68:1–11, 2006. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the first reported transmission to a human of simian foamy virus (SFV) from a free-ranging population of nonhuman primates in Asia. The transmission of an exogenous retrovirus, SFV, from macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to a human at a monkey temple in Bali, Indonesia, was investigated with molecular and serologic techniques. Antibodies to SFV were detected by Western blotting of serum from 1 of 82 humans tested. SFV DNA was detected by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from the blood of the same person. Cloning and sequencing of PCR products confirmed the virus's close phylogenetic relationship to SFV isolated from macaques at the same temple. This study raises concerns that persons who work at or live around monkey temples are at risk for infection with SFV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, nonhuman primate pets come into frequent contact with humans, presenting the possibility of zoonotic and anthropozoonotic disease transmission. We collected fecal samples from 88 pet macaques representing six of the seven macaque species currently recognized as endemic to Sulawesi (Macaca nigra, M. nigrescens, M. hecki, M. tonkeana, M. maura , and M. ochreata ) as well as two non-endemic species (M. fascicularis and M. nemestrina ) in order to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection in this population. Seven taxa of intestinal protozoa (Blastocystis hominis, Iodamoeba bütschlii, Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba hartmanni, Chilomastrix mesnili, Endolimax nana , and Retortamonas intestinalis ) and three taxa of nematodes (hookworm, Trichuris spp., and Ascaris spp.) were detected. The overall parasitization rate was 59.1%. Commensal organisms predominated in this population. Parasitization was not statistically correlated with macaque age group, sex, species, or location, or with the owner's level of education. These findings are discussed in the context of primate pet ownership practices in Sulawesi. Am. J. Primatol. 62:71-82, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Pedicinus spp. parasitize several species of nonhuman primates. This is the first published report confirming the presence of Pedicinus albidus (Rudow) infestation in the free-ranging macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar. The diagnosis of pediculosis was based upon finding adult lice on host animals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Simian foamy viruses (SVF) are ubiquitous in nonhuman primates (NHP). SFV can be zoonotically transmitted to humans who either work with or live commensally with NHP. We analyzed the blood of 45 Bangladeshi performing monkey owners (an ethnic group called the Bedey) for SFV infection. Surprisingly, a PCR assay failed to detect SFV infection in any of these participants. This is in contrast to our previously reported infection rate of about 5% among Bangladeshi villagers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]