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The article is devoted to the analysis of the emphasis of qualitative adjectives that differentiate the Ukrainian dialect. This is clearly evidenced by the maps of the Atlas of the Ukrainian language, which reflect the dialectal features of the stress of adjectives. The question arises of the genesis of accentuation types found in Ukrainian dialects, as well as the directions of accent changes: from root to prefix, suffix, inflection or vice versa. The expediency of not only identifying but also explaining the functioning of modern accent types is emphasized. A detailed analysis of the emphasis of adjectives is carried out on the basis of dialect texts as a whole, which are presented in collections of dialect texts, in particular in the textbook of dialect texts - Dialekts of the Ukrainian language. Collection of texts (Texts), which represent the south-eastern, south-western, northern, as well as descriptive works. To clarify the history of the emergence of accent types used works on historical accentology, in particular L.A. Bulakhovsky, V.M. Ilyich-Svitich, V.G. Sklyarenko, Z.M. Veselovskaya. As a result of the research, modern accent types were identified and analyzed as reflexes of late Proto-Slavic accent paradigms. Based on the analysis, it is concluded that qualitative adjectives in Ukrainian dialects retain the old place of emphasis, and acquired a new type of emphasis. Factors that influenced the emphasis of adjectives are: loss of former intonation and temporal-quantitative relations; change of intonations (descending emphasis in the non-article form passed to ascending - root - in the article form); mixing of two types of stress in the formation of article forms of adjectives from non-article; in particular, when article and non-article forms of adjectives have different emphasis. In the formation of article forms of adjectives from non-article there was not only a change in the structure of the word, but also a change in intonations: the descending stress in the non-article form was transformed in the article form of adjectives into ascending - root. The proposed study presents only a fragment of the research of the functioning of modern accent types in Ukrainian dialects as reflections of Proto-Slavic paradigms of adjectives. That is why it remains promising to study the processes and phenomena of stressing adjectives that both differentiate and integrate the Ukrainian dialect space.

A clear understanding of the systemic differences between interacting languages is necessary to study the interaction of languages in the mind of a bilingual (multilingual) personality and improve the practice of teaching languages in a transcultural environment. If such languages belong to different morphological types, the method of determinant analysis can be proposed as an effective tool for methodological forecasting of negative interference. The goal set by the authors of the article is to establish cause-and-effect relationships between the systemic determinant of the language type and its particular specific features at the levels of phonetics, morphology and syntax. The object of the research is the agglutinative and inflectional types of languages that lie between the extreme manifestations of proximity and remoteness of individual minds. In their work, the authors rely on the systemic methodology of determinant typological analysis, developed in the 1960s-70s by the founder of modern systemic linguistics, Professor Gennady Prokopyevich Melnikov.

Lexemes may be split internally, by phenomena such as suppletion, periphrasis, heteroclisis and deponency. Generalizing over these phenomena, which split a lexeme’s paradigm, we can establish a typology of the possible internal splits. There are also lexemes whose external requirements are split: they induce different agreement, for instance. Again, a typology of these splits has been proposed. The next logical step is to attempt a typology of the possible relations between internal and external splits. This is not straightforward, since we need to avoid spurious linkages. Four lines of argument are offered: (i) general plausibility: the internal-external linkage is compelling, and so other accounts require a degree of coincidence which is unlikely; (ii) overabundance: alternative inflectional forms link to different external requirements; (iii) variation in time and space: splits in inflection and in external requirements vary, while maintaining their linkage; (iv) pluralia tantum nouns: the different types of these nouns provide intriguing confirming evidence. Case studies include Asia Minor Greek, Polish, Russian, Scottish Gaelic, Sɛlɛɛ, Serbo-Croat (BCMS), Slovenian, Latin and Old Frisian. The clear instances which emerge, where an external split is demonstrably linked to an internal one, prove both surprising and significant. We discover that in split paradigms, besides overt overabundance, there may also be covertly overabundant cells. Furthermore, when external splits involve individual cells, these will not induce simple (consistent) agreement. This makes good sense, demonstrating that featural information is associated with lexemes in a natural default manner: at the lexeme level by default, unless overridden at the sub-paradigm level, unless in turn overridden at the level of individual cells.

There are a number of helping verbs in Jordanian Arabic that are confused with light verbs or serial verbs. This paper, first, establishes the criteria on which they have been identified as auxiliary verbs. The paper shows the similarities and differences between the inflection of lexical verbs and aux’s in JA. It also tackles the loss of θ-assigning properties which is the crucial property that differentiates between aux and lexical and serial verbs. Second, given the fact that Arabic has rich verbal morphology which provides enough justification for factoring TP into TP and AspP (and perhaps AgrP), the study adopts an articulated version of the IP, in which inflection is separated into its constituent components, each has a maximal functional projection. The study also builds on Ouhalla's proposal (1990, 2005) that auxiliaries originate outside the VP shell. Based on evidence from the distribution of VP adverbs, negation and floating quantifiers, the paper proposes that auxiliaries in Jordanian Arabic are classified under two lexical auxiliary groups. T-aux are borne in a functional projection under T, but raise to T 0 to carry and reflect tense, while Asp-aux are base-generated under Asp 0 and only raise to T in the absence of a T-Aux.

Referring to the "vital parts" of speech that do not appear in print, E. B. Huey (1908/1968) described prosody in reading as "the rise and fall of pitch and inflection, the hurrying here and slowing there, what we have called the melody of speech." In this paper, we discuss the role prosody plays in reading, contextualized in the Reading Systems Framework, as a source of linguistic knowledge that impacts the orthographic system, the lexicon, and comprehension processes in tonal and non-tonal languages. Prosody at the word, phrase, and discourse levels is considered. We also review empirical evidence from experimental, longitudinal, and training studies to show the current state of knowledge about the role of prosodic competence in reading development. We conclude the paper with recommendations for future directions in research.

Perfective stem allomorphy and stress are morphological traits which interact in complex ways in Romance verbal inflection. This article surveys the whole range of variation of these traits across Romance varieties, typologizes the observed interactions between the two, and examines attested and unattested possibilities. A comparison between the modern-day and the original Latin systems suggests that there is a strong pan-Romance bias against having verbs with a concrete combination of properties: perfective root-stress and no perfective stem alternation. This is a combination of traits that would have frequently resulted in diagonal syncretisms between past and present given the phonological changes attested in the daughter languages. Homophony avoidance (and the adaptive-discriminative role of morphology more generally) are therefore argued to motivate the observed bias. Keywords: change biases; diachrony; homophony; morphology; predictability; syncretism

This article analyzes the differences in the vocalic inflection observed between Ḥafṣ transmission of ‘Āṣim’s reading and Warsh’s transmission of Nāfi‘’s reading of the Qur’ān, the latter of which is the most widespread in the Islamic world. The aim is also to determine whether the majority are morphologically based; to get acquainted with the research and to analyze the issues of interest, and to ensure that new scientific findings can be brought to the attention of the scientific community. The author’s analysis, based on the comparative method of the phenomena of vocal inflection, especially in the transmission of Warsh, which is less familiar to a wide audience, has special scientific and practical significance. Comments are made on previously expressed considerations regarding the problem, and an attempt is made to overestimate the phonetic phenomena and make an appropriate assessment.

This paper proposes a uniform analysis of canonical and noncanonical French and Dutch attributive adjectives. Canonically, French adjectives are postnominal and Dutch adjectives are inflected. The noncanonical counterparts are prenominal, for French, and lacking inflection, for Dutch. A review of the literature indicates several proposed locations in the noun phrase for adjectives, and this analysis utilizes three: Spec-Subj in the D-layer, Spec-Agr, and NP-internal. Adjectives in Spec-Agr produce a canonical reading, functioning like predicates of the noun phrase. The subjective nature of the D-layer and the proximity of NP-internal adjectives to N accounts for the noncanonical interpretations. The formal distinction in canonicity arises because Dutch adjective inflection is the exponent of the Agr-head, so that only Spec-Agr adjectives are inflected, and because French NP movement crosses the adjective in Spec-Agr, so that only Spec-Agr adjectives are postnominal.

Este artículo analiza la fonología y morfología de los clíticos que marcan la persona gramatical en el triqui de Chicahuaxtla, una lengua otomangue hablada al noroeste del estado de Oaxaca, México. Su objetivo es determinar la forma subyacente de estás marcas y explicar las alternancias tonales que exhiben cuando se adjuntan a una base léxica. El análisis sigue los principios generales de la Fonología Autosegmental que establece que las unidades tonales se representan en una grada diferente a la segmental. Plantea que en esta lengua la Unidad Portadora de Tono es la mora y que, entre los clíticos que se revisan, algunos muestran asociación subyacente a una mora y otros son flotantes. El análisis se realiza en el dominio de la flexión de la persona gramatical y demuestra que el tono es morfológico en esta lengua.

In Modern Hebrew, prefixoids such as tat ‘sub’, χad ‘mono’, etc. appear on nouns and suffixed adjectives. The status of the prefixoid is not clear: in some respects, it behaves like the morphological head, but in others it behaves like the dependent. Focusing on tat ‘sub’, this paper provides both the first thorough description of such an item and a morphological analysis. It is claimed that the prefixoid is always a nominal modifier. In some configurations, the modified nominal structure is null. These claims are shown to account for the selectional restrictions of the prefixoid, as well as the agreement and inflection patterns of the different items with tat.

The alternations k~c, g~z, and x~s occurring before i in Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian (BCS) noun declension stem from the Second Palatalization of Velars, but are no longer phonologically conditioned. In the dative-locative singular of nouns with nominative in -a, they are favored or hindered by a combination of morphological criteria. In the dative-instrumental-locative plural of masculine nouns, they are almost exceptionless. In the same three cases of neuter nouns they occur more when the noun is directly after a preposition, less when other words intervene between the preposition and the noun, a phenomenon that has not previously been remarked in the literature. We exemplify it with the noun pazuho ‘armpit’.

Spelling has been found to be influenced by the frequency with which certain orthographic patterns occur. We examined whether Grades 2–5 children were already sensitive to orthographic frequency in spelling present tense verb inflections that sound the same but are spelled differently. Children were asked to spell present tenses in two homophonous forms; both inflections are pronounced with final /t/ but are spelled with final -d (“ik vind,” I find) or -dt (“hij/zij vindt,” he/she finds). Previous research has shown that adolescents and adults make inflection errors based on the relative frequency within a pair; as “vind’ is more frequent than “vindt,” “vind” is often used incorrectly. The children showed low correct scores for third person singular spellings, and overall better performance for -d dominant verbs. Surprisingly, they did make errors related to homophone inflection but in the wrong place, marking the wrong time: homophone-based errors occurred in present tense non-homophone verbs and in past tenses. We take our findings to mean that the children were not sensitive to homophone dominance. Furthermore, the findings illustrate the importance of specific graphotactic patterns in literacy development and call for attention to these patterns in models and teaching of spelling.

This article shows how the unearthing of new historical data on a language can contribute to diachronic studies and language reconstruction. †Old Zamuco is an extinct Zamucoan language, for which the only extant dictionary was recently rediscovered. This dictionary is the main source on the language and is very rich in morphological information. In particular, it contains many new verb paradigms with previously undescribed or only conjectured characteristics. These features were analyzed in order to compare them with the present-day Zamucoan languages, Ayoreo and Chamacoco. This gave us the opportunity to formulate hypotheses on the historical development of Zamucoan verb morphology and to improve the already available reconstruction of Proto-Zamucoan verb inflection.

This paper describes two different grammatical tone constructions that occur in the verb morphology of Tenango Otomi (Central Mexico; Oto-Pamean, Oto-Manguean), which consist in tone alternations o...

يتناول هذا البحث دراسة المثنى والجمع في مباحث النحو العربي، من ناحيتي البناء والإعراب، فاستعرض البحث دراسة هذين الموضوعين في أربعةأبواب نحوية، وهي أسماء الإشارة، والأسماء الموصولة، وجملة (لا) النافية للجنس، وجملة النداء. استعرض البحث أيضا کتابات النحويين في عصور النحو المختلفة، واستکشف آراءهم وأدلتهم، وشواهدهم، موافقا لهم أحيانا، ومحاولا مقابلة بعض آرائهم برأي جديد معتمدا على شواهد العربية. وجاءت نتائج البحث مواتية، حققت هدف البحث، وفيها أوجزت ما انتهى إليه البحث من نتائج، وکان أبرز ما جاء بها تبني البحث نظرية الازدواج الإعرابي وسيلة لتفسير مواضع وقوع المثنى والجمع بين ظاهرتي البناء والإعراب. The Dual and Plural in between Inflection and Parsing A Syntactic Study By: Reem Bint Khalaf Bin Meften Alj'aed Department of Language, Syntax and Morphology Faculty of Arabic Language Um Al- Qura University Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Abstract This research studies the dual and Plural Words between inflection and Parsing in Arabic Syntax. The research displays this topic in four chapters: demonstrative Pronouns, relative Pronouns, La " no" negation of gender, and the vocative style. The research has also examined Arabic references along the history of Arabic Syntax to detect their reviews and evidence. The thesis sometimes follows and sometimes denounces the inherited views. The thesis tries to show evidence seeking proof of its attitude. The conclusion agreed with the scope of the thesis and the most important result was that the inflection duplication was a good means of illustration in many places regarding the dual and plural words between inflection and Parsing. Keywords: Muthanna "dual", plural, inflection, syntax, sign, relative, inflectional pairing.

The principal objective of the research study is to examine the effectiveness of teaching the pronunciation of inflection in English words through the analytic-linguistic approach. The researcher followed a pre-experiment research design, especially one- group- pretest- posttest- design, which included a pretest measure followed by a treatment and a posttest for a single group after the treatment or intervention. A set of fifty multiple choice test items was administered to the sample of 21 bachelor first year education students studying major English at Makawanpur Multiple Campus, Hetauda, Nepal in the Academic Year 2019-2020. The researcher adopted the census method also known as a statistical enumeration method wherein each and every student in the population was selected for eliciting the primary data. The result showed there was a statistically significant difference between the pretest mean score (M=20.190, SD=14.169 and N=21) and the posttest mean score (M= 25.619, SD=14.844 and N=21) of the students. The statistics of (df) =20, p< .05, the observed t-value= 4.38 and the table t-value = 2.086 at 0.05 significance level of the test showed that teaching the pronunciation of inflection through the analytic-linguistic approach was effective among the students at this campus. This study contributes to the existing body of the pronunciation of English words by highlighting that the same spelling functioning as the inflection of the English words has different pronunciation. It is shown through presentations.

This paper analyzes the Zamucoan system of Person markers: personal pronouns, verbal and possessive inflection. Comparing the three documented languages (Ayoreo and Chamacoco, currently spoken, and extinct Old Zamuco), one can reconstruct for a very ancient stage of this language family an agglutinating structure for both personal pronouns and verbal inflection, with Person and Number dealt with by, respectively, prefixes and suffixes. However, possessive inflection could not be accommodated within this system, since the noun suffix can only express possessum Number, while possessor Number has to be expressed by a dedicated prefix. This structural conflict forced the Zamucoan languages to attempt various solutions, departing from the original agglutinating logic.

This paper was conducted to describe the types of English inflectional errors found in Indonesian deaf people in writing composition, identify the sources of the errors in the use of English inflection, and to find out the percentages. The Indonesian deaf people were from Indonesian deaf community groups on Facebook, WhatsApp, and Instagram. This research used a descriptive qualitative approach by applying English inflection theory by Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy. The data collection techniques were conducted by using an online English writing test. The results showed that there were 179 errors in total in Indonesian deaf people’s writings. The most found error was in Third Person Singular Present Inflection with 51 errors (28.5%) and the least was in Present Participle Inflection with 16 errors (9%), and the rest were 18 errors (10%) in Preterite Inflection, 19 errors (10.6%) in Comparative Inflection, 22 errors (12.3%) in Superlative Inflection, 27 errors (15.1%) in Past Participle Inflection, and 26 errors (14.5%) in Plural Inflection. The source of error was Intralingual Error with 156 errors (87.15%) (False Concept Hypothesized with 6 errors (3.3%), Incomplete Application of Rules with 8 errors (4.5%), Overgeneralization with 23 errors (12.85%), and Ignorance of Rules Restriction with 119 errors (66.5%)) and Interlingual Error with 23 errors (12.85%).

This paper is an attempt to present the morphological processes that have been observed in Sanzari Boro, an eastern variety of the Boro language. Boro belongs to Tibeto-Burman language family. The Standard variety of Boro is mainly spoken in the present Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) of Assam, India but Sanzari Boro speakers primarily reside outside and eastern part of the BTR. For this research data have been collected from native Sanzari Boro speakers of Nagaon district of Assam. After examining the data, it has been noticed that affixation, mainly suffixation and prefixation, plays important role in the morphological processes in Sanzari Boro. The major morphological processes that have been observed in the language variety are inflection, derivation, compounding and reduplication.

This research aims to find the derivative affixes and Inflection affixin "Song Adele Album". This study is a descriptive qualitative study. Researcher tries to find derived words, ending affixes and roots from words in Songs Adele Albums without using statistical calculations. In this study, the author used all words containing prefixes and suffixes as data. The data source is all parts of the word, which are the beginning of the song sung by Adele's album. The result of analyzing the data is that the derived affixes and affixes found in the song Adele album are -er, -en, -ing, -ly, -ment, -ness, -ness as suffixes, and the affixes are -d, -s, -ed, -ing, -es, -er, -est. From the conclusions of this study, the author suggests that in order to improve their vocabulary mastery, readers should apply derived words and affixes by decomposing words into roots and affixes, because they can get the structure of a word from a word , and also discover how words are constructed. By understanding the roots, readers can construct words themselves.

يلخص البحث ظاهرة من ظواهر الفصحى وهي : إفراد الفعل مع الفاعل الظاهر ، سواء أکان مفردا ،أو مثنى ، أو جمعا . تطابق الفعل مع فاعله الظاهر ، أي : إلحاق الفعل علامة تدل على نوع الفاعل من حيث العدد، أي : تسند ألف الاثنين للفعل إذا کان الفاعل مثنى ، وواو الجماعة إذا کان الفاعل جمع مذکر، ونون النسوة إذا کان الفاعل جمع مؤنث ، وقد وردت هاتان الصورتان ، في القرآان الکريم والسنة المطهرة ، وأقوال العرب شعرا ونثرا . وقد دارت الأبحاث السابقة حول ما إذا کانت الصورة الثانية فصيحة أوتعد لغة أخري ام أنها لغة ضعيفة شاذة واستقر الأمر على أنها لغة فصيحة إلا أنها قليلة الورود ، وجاءت في العامية کثيرا فهل جاءت الصورتان في العامية بنفس ما وردت في الفصحى ؟ أم أن هناک اختلاف ؟ قارن البحث بين شعر أحمد فؤاد نجم من شعراء العامية المصرية من خلال أعماله الکاملة الطبعة الأولى 2005، دار مريت القاهرة وتبن أن الشعر العامي من خلال هذه الأعمال قد وردت الصورة الثانية لکن بنسبة أکثر ورودا من الصورة الأولى، وقد وردت أمثلة على لسان الشاعر أيضا من الصورة الأولى ولکن بنسبة أقل من الثانية في حين أن الصورة االأولى في الفصحى هي السائدة ، إما الصورة الثانية وهي تطابق الفعل مع فاعله في العدد أقل ، والصورة الأولى في الفصحى على الأکثرية ، إلاأن في العامية العکس . الصورة الثانية أکثر ورودا في العامية من الأولى ، وقد تأثرت بالعامية المصرية ، حيث تعامل المثنى معاملة الجمع ، فإذا جاء المثنى في موقع الفاعل الحق بالفعل علامة الجمع وجاء على الصورة الثانية . وجاء المثنى بالياء والنون فقط ، ولم يأت مرفوعا رغم وقوعها في موقع المرفوع . کما أنه لم يأت من الصورة الثانية إلا ما وهو مسند إلى واو الجماعة فقط ، خلاف الفصحى ورد منها ما هو مسند إلى الواو ، ومنها ما أسند إلى نون النسوة ، ومنها ما أسند إلى ألف الاثنين ، بذلک يکون الشاعر يسير وفق نظام العربية ، ولم يخرج عنها إلا في أمثلة المثنى فقد عامله معاملة الجمع ، ومجيء المضارع المسند لواو الجماعة محذوف النون ( يقولوا – يسمعوا - يبقوا ) دون أن يسبقه الصب ، ولا جازم ، وبمجيء الصورتين في أعمال الشاعر يدل على اطلاعه على نظام العربية وإفادته منها ، وأن الفاتحين العرب المسلمين الذين نزلوا مصر واستقروا فيها کانت الصورتان في لغتهم مستقرة وـاثره أيضا بالعامية في عدم التزام الإعراب . The research summarizes one of the phenomena of Classical Arabic, namely: Usage of singular verbs with mentioned subjects; regardless of the subject’s singularity, duality, or plurality. Usage of verb agreement with its mentioned subjects in number (singular, dual, or plural), i.e. suffixing the verb with a morpheme corresponding to the subject’s number, i.e. suffixing the verb with either the dual morpheme [ā],[ الف] if the subject number is dual, the plural masculine morpheme [ū] ,[واو]if the subject’s gender is masculine and its number is plural, or the plural feminine morpheme [na][نون] if the subject’s gender is feminine and its number is plural. Both variations are used in Quran, Hadith, and Classical Arabic poetry and prose. Previous studies have tackled whether or not the second usage is Classical Arabic standard, another standard form, or a non-standard variation of Arabic. It has been settled that this usage is Classical Arabic standard but it is an infrequent one. This second usage however is frequently occurring in Colloquial Egyptian. But are the two variations used in Colloquial Egyptian in the same manner as in Classical Arabic, or are there differences? The paper studies and compares the poems written by Ahmed Fouad Negm through his Complete Works, First Edition, 2005, Merit Publishing House, Cairo, and it concludes that Colloquial Egyptian poetry – as seen in that body of work – showed a higher occurrence of the second usage compared to the first. The poet mentioned a variety of examples of the first usage but they were much less frequent than the second. With regard to Classical Arabic, the first usage is the frequent one. The second usage – the agreement of the verb with its correspondent subject in number – is rare in number. The first usage is more frequent, but in Colloquial Egyptian is quite rare. The second usage in Colloquial Egyptian is more frequent than the first. It has been influenced by Colloquial Egyptian in its treatment of dual subjects as plural. So, wherever the dual subject is in the nominative case, its corresponding verb is suffixed with the plural [masculine] morpheme and is written in the form of the second usage. Again, the dual subject is exclusively ending with the [yaa and noon] [الياء والنون] even if it is in the nominative case, (the inflection used in Classical Arabic for the nominative dual subject is [aliph and noon] الألف والنون]] and for the accusative and genitive cases is [yaa and noon] [الياء والنون] ). So in Colloquial Egyptian, the verbs agreeing with their corresponding subjects (the second usage) are exclusively suffixed with the masculine plural morpheme [ū واو], regardless of the duality, plurality, masculinity, or femininity of their subjects, in contrast with Classical Arabic where the verbs agree with the gender as well as the number of their corresponding subject; being suffixed with [ā الف], [ū واو], [na نون] for masculine or feminine dual subject, masculine plural subject, and feminine plural subject respectively. Thus it is seen that the poet is observing the Classical Arabic model and has not deviated from it other than in his treatment of dual subjects as plural. In his treatment of the present tense, verbs are suffixed with the masculine plural morpheme [ūواو]-- as he exclusively uses them with the inflection of the subjunctive and jussive modes [ū], even if they are in the indicative mood (which in Classical Arabic ends in [ūna]), (e.g. ya-qū-lū, yas-ma-ʿū, yub- qū). Using both variations in his works, it is shown that the poet has knowledge of the Classical Arabic model, and has benefited from it. Again, the poet shows that the Muslim Arab conquerors who came to Egypt and settled in it had already had both variations established in their linguistic usage. It also shows that the poet has been influenced by Colloquial Egyptian in that he has not observed the inflection of Classical Arabic.

The article analyses the loss of agreement between the dative clitic and its plural nominal referent in indirect object clitic-doubling in Spanish spoken in Galicia. On the basis of the previously defended hypothesis that number disagreement makes part of a grammaticalisation process whereby the clitic becomes a case affix, the paper examines some internal factors which lack consensus in previous studies, such as the relation between (in)transitivity and position of the clitic or animacity of nominal referents of the IO, and other external factors. Data analysis reveals that the percentage of disagreement in this area is much higher than in other Spanish speaking areas. This fact might be a consequence of language contact with Galician, a language where number inflection in the dative clitic is neutralised. To verify this hypothesis, the paper explores the relation between the number of occurrences of disagreement and the level of bilingualism of the speakers.

In Swiss German dialects first names are commonly used with a preceding article. Historically, the function of these so-called onymic articles was to show the name’s case. They first arose when inflection of first names had been omitted and case was thus no longer expressed in suffixes. The data gathered in 2016 in an online survey for the research project “Das Anna und ihr Hund” indicate that today the function of reflecting the case is hardly relevant. However, it is important to the speakers to emphasize the nameʼs grammatical gender. The three grammatical genders in (Swiss) German are feminine, masculine, and neuter. Typically, the ono­nymic articles’ grammatical gender corresponds to their referents’ biological gender, i. e. feminine articles for women’s names, masculine articles for men’s names. But sometimes neuter articles are used with female or, less often, with male names. Therefore, the same first name can have different grammatical genders that are indicated with an onymic article, e. g. d Anna (f.) or s Anna (n.). The choice of the article depends on the speaker, the situation, the referent, and other factors. Based on these observations, it is argued that marking grammatical gender is the onymic article’s main function and marking case is secondary.

Lexically stipulated suppletive allomorphy, such as that found in inflection class systems, makes wordforms unpredictable because any one of several exponents may be used to express some morphosyntactic property set. However, recent research shows that apparently complex inflectional paradigms can be organised in such a way that knowing one inflected form of a lexeme greatly reduces the uncertainty of other forms (e.g. Ackerman and Malouf 2013). Further typological work is required to investigate the ways in which inflectional interpredictability is achieved, and what aspects of wordforms may be informative. In this paper we present a case study of interpredictability in verbal inflection in Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara (Pama-Nyungan; Australia). We show that a combination of suffix allomorphy, prosodically conditioned stem augmentation, and the prosodic structure of verbal roots all conspire to achieve a paradigm that is totally interpredictable: hearing one inflected verb enables a speaker to produce with certainty any other form of that verb. We also provide a detailed description of metrical structure in the language, clarifying previous analyses.

This paper examines inflectional markers (signalling number, case and gender) of selected types of NN complexes in Polish, which can be regarded as attributive-appositive (ATAP) lexical units in the cross-linguistic classification of compounds proposed by Scalise & Bisetto (2009) . Polish compounds proper show externalization of inflection and take inflectional markers on their right-hand constituents only. In contrast, Polish juxtapositions are expected to display double inflectional marking (on both their components). However, data from the National Corpus of Polish demonstrate that ATAP juxtapositions containing the lexeme widmo ‘ghost, phantom’ as their right-hand component exhibit variability in their inflectional paradigms. The right-hand (i.e. the modifier) constituent of such juxtapositions either shows number and case agreement with the head noun, or it appears in the default (nom.sg) form. Potential reasons for the instability of inflectional paradigms of such NN juxtapositions are considered.

Many theories of word structure in linguistics and morphological processing in cognitive psychology are grounded in a compositional perspective on the (mental) lexicon in which complex words are built up during speech production from sublexical elements such as morphemes, stems, and exponents. When combined with the hypothesis that storage in the lexicon is restricted to the irregular, the prediction follows that properties specific to regular inflected words cannot co-determine the phonetic realization of these inflected words. This study shows that the stem vowels of regular English inflected verb forms that are more frequent in their paradigm are produced with more enhanced articulatory gestures in the midsaggital plane, challenging compositional models of lexical processing. The effect of paradigmatic probability dovetails well with the Paradigmatic Enhancement Hypothesis and is consistent with a growing body of research indicating that the whole is more than its parts.

Naudojantis reliacine „Knygos nobažnystės“ (1653) morfologijos duomenų baze tiriama būdvardžių kaityba: vyriškosios giminės (ir negimininių formų) kamienai, moteriškosios giminės kamienai, jų koreliacija. Apžvelgiamos unikalios paradigmos bei nusistovėję kaitybos tipai. Aptariamas kamienų įvairavimas ir jo priežastys, atskirų KN dalių autorių kalbos skirtybės. Using the relational database of KN morphology inflection of adjectives is investigated: masculine (and non-gender forms) stems, feminine stems and their correlation. The unique and wellestablished paradigms of inflection types are reviewed. The variation of stems and its causes, the language differences in the individual parts of the KN are dicussed.

This article studies the derivational system of gender and number in Ait Atta variety of Amazigh language. Thus, the following claims are made: first, gender is overtly marked on feminine nouns by the prefixation of the gender morpheme t-. The paper argues that [t…t] is not a circumfix or a discontinuous morpheme, but it is an asymmetric inflection. In the derivational system of gender, large majority of nouns allow for gender opposition. However, mass nouns allow only for one lexically determined gender and number. Moreover, masculine has no overt realization in Amazigh language. Vocalic initial nouns fall into the category of masculine nouns. I argue that the initial vowel is a nominal marker. I submit that the noun, in general, consists of maximally three main parts: a prefix, a lexical base, and a suffix. Second, the majority of Berber noun stems involve, at least, one vowel in addition to the prefixal vowel (e.g. ‘a-ḍar’ foot, ‘a-funas’ bull, 'a-ɣrum’ bread). Third, when the plural noun is specified as [+feminine], it takes the gender morpheme t-. Fourth, number takes the form of a feature assigned lexically to the noun. The study provides a templatic analysis to account for internal noun change. It implements Lahrouchi and Ridouane (2016) analysis of diminutives and plurals in Moroccan Arabic and argues that sound plurals in Amazigh language are associated with standard Num projection, while id/istt-plurals are associated with lower in the structure with n projection.

This paper deals with the restrictive (limitative) marker kə̄n ‘only’ in Ulcha (Southern Tungusic). This marker has nontrivial positional features: it can attach before inflectional suffixes (as a derivational affix) or after them (as an enclitic). One might see the process of affix reordering described in Haspelmath (1993) as “externalization of inflection”, when a former clitic becomes a derivational affix. However, there is evidence that the uses of kə̄n after inflection are innovative as compared to those before inflection, not vice versa, and this direction of diachronic development is very unexpected. In this paper, I propose an explanation for this nonstandard reordering pattern and show that in fact it has the same motivation and the same mechanisms as previously reported types of affix reordering.

Summary The article deals with the highly original idea of mental inflection [умственное словоизменение] in Chinese put forward by the prominent nineteenth-century Russian sinologist Nikita (比丘林, Father Iakinf or Hyacinthus) Bičurin (1777–1853) in his Kitajskaja Grammatika (1835) and other language-related works. The concept refers to the internal features of Chinese morphology which compensate for the absence of common grammatical inflection. Fostered in an Humboldtian spirit, the theory established a link between covert categories and their surface representations a century before functional syntax appeared on the linguistic stage.

Artikkelissa tarkastellaan direktiivejä, joissa esiintyy niin sanottua implisiittistä puhuttelua eli kuulijaan ei viitata 2. persoonan pronominilla tai verbimuodolla. Aineistona on virkailijan asiakkaalle esittämiä direktiivejä Kelan toimistojen asiakaspalvelutilanteista. Analyysiin on valittu kolme implisiittistä puhuttelurakennetta: 1) nollapersoona, 2) passiivi ja 3) nominilauseke. Rakenteet eivät muodosta yhtenäistä ryhmää, vaan jokaisella niistä on omat tyypilliset käyttökontekstinsa. Nollapersoonamuotoiset direktiivit ovat referenssiltään hyvin joustavia: niitä voidaan käyttää yleispätevissä ohjeissa, ainoastaan kyseiselle asiakkaalle suunnatuissa direktiiveissä sekä direktiiveissä, jotka voi hoitaa joko kyseinen asiakas tai joku hänen perheenjäsenensä. Passiivimuotoisia direktiivejä käytetään, kun viitataan johonkin yleisesti tunnettuun prosessiin, joka toimii aina samalla tavalla ja josta asiakkaalla yleensä on jo jonkin verran tietoa. Toisinaan passiividirektiiveihin sisältyy myös Kelan näkökulma. Nominilausekkeen muotoisilla direktiiveillä taas ohjataan ongelmattomia, rutiinimaisia toimintoja. Implisiittisesti puhuttelevia direktiivejä ei aineiston perusteella käytetä eksplisiittisen puhuttelun välttämiseen tai kiertämiseen. Sen sijaan niillä voidaan osoittaa suhtautumista esimerkiksi direktiivin odotuksenmukaisuuden tai välttämättömyyden asteeseen., The article examines Finnish directives with so-called implicit addressing (no 2nd person pronouns or verbal inflection). The data come from service encounters in Finnish Social Insurance Institution (Kela) offices and consist of instructions, advice, and requests uttered by the employees to clients. Focus lies on three constructions: 1) zero person, 2) passive, and 3) noun phrase (NP). Each of them operates uniquely and has its own characteristic environment(s) of use. Zero person directives are flexible in terms of their reference: they can be either generic instructions, applying to all clients in similar circumstances, or specific to a certain client. Passive-formed directives are mostly used when referring to common, noncontingent actions that the client is supposed to perform independently. Noun phrases are used for unproblematic routine actions such as signing a form. Implicit address forms are not used to avoid explicit addressing. Instead, they are a smooth device for performing social actions in a delicate manner and an indicator of mutual understanding.