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The present project aims to obtain ERP responses to different patterns of pitch accent violation of potentially different linguistic statuses: including the cases that (i) the lexical accent type is incorrectly chosen, (ii) the accent nucleus is placed on a wrong mora, and (iii) the Compound Accent Rule of Tokyo Japanese is not applied.

الملخص تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى تحليل الكلمات المركبة من القواميس الإندونيسية الكبيرة وإيجاد تأثيرها على متعلمي اللغة العربية. يعتمد هذا البحث على الأساليب العلمية ، وهي: الطرق: الأوصاف التحليلية للنهج الكمية والنوعية. طريقة تحليل البيانات النوعية المستخدمة هي الطريقة المستخدمة للإشارة إلى المكون المباشر. طريقة التحليل الكمي للبيانات هي ضرب عدد التكرارات في المئة وتقسيمها على عدد العينات. نتائج البحث 1). تحتوي الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة التي تتوافق مع الصيغة العربية على 19 كلمة. 2). الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة التي تنتهك بنية اللغة العربية وتحتوي على 28 كلمة. تدخل الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة مصطلحات نحوية اصطلاحية باللغة العربية وتحتوي على 9 كلمات. أظهرت النتائج أن 72٪ من الطالبات يجدون صعوبة في استخدام الكلمات المركبة الإندونيسية المكافئة باللغة العربية ، و 38٪ من الطالبات يترجمون الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة حرفياً ، و 28٪ أن الطالبات لا يعرفن الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة المكافئة في اللغة العربية من قبل ، و 88 ٪ من الطالبات يعرفون ويدركون أن الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة باللغة العربية مهمة جدًا لمعرفة خاصة للطلاب العرب ، و 96 ٪ من الطلاب ، والكثير منهم مخطئون في استخدام الكلمات الإندونيسية المركبة باللغة العربية. Abstract This study aims to analyze compound words from large Indonesian dictionaries and find their effect on Arabic language learners. This research is based on scientific methods, namely: Methods: Analytical descriptions of qualitative and quantitative approaches. The qualitative data analysis method used is the approach used to refer to the direct component. Quantitative data analysis method is to multiply the number of repetitions by percent and divide it by the number of samples. Results from research 1). Indonesian compound words, which match the Arabic syntax, contain 19 words. 2). Indonesian compound words that violate the structure of the Arabic language and contain 28 words. Indones ian compound words enter idiomatic syntactical terms in Arabic and contain 9 words. The results showed that 72% of female students found it difficult to use equivalent Indonesian compound words in Arabic, 38% of female students translated Indonesian compound words literally, and 28% that female students did not know equivalent Indonesian compound words in Arabic before, and 88% of female students know and realize that Indonesian compound words in Arabic are very important to know especially for Arabic students, and 96% of students, many of them wrong in using Indonesian compound words in Arabic.

Choosing appropriate reading material for language learners is not an easy task. It is necessary to keep in mind the specific purpose of the exercise and that the material chosen must support that purpose. Often, these goals will include developing fluency, increasing vocabulary knowledge, and increasing the rate at which vocabulary grows. One of the texts and novels commonly used for extensive reading in high intermediate level English as a Second Language coursework in the United States is The Giver, a young adult novel written by American author Lois Lowry. Due to its importance, we chose to analyze the novel within the framework of word frequency counts through the lens of the percent of words a learner must know in order to understand the particular text. A corpus-based method is utilized in the study to determine the types and frequency of vocabulary that The Giver provides. Common groupings of related low frequency lexical items and collocations are explored. This application of a corpus-based analysis of the text draws a picture of the vocabulary that is presented in The Giver, and how it matches 1K, 2K and AWL. The analysis reveals that 89.07% of the vocabulary was found to fall within these high frequency word lists, which gives the novel a somewhat higher comprehensibility than average academic texts. Analysis of low-frequency words reveals key vocabulary that increase comprehensibility when explicitly taught, as well as use of compound words, prefixes, and suffixes, that—if paired with instruction in vocabulary analysis techniques—can also increase the comprehensibility of the text. A conclusion is drawn regarding the appropriateness of this novel for the target audience in the specified course types, with suggestions for modifications and supplements for the text’s use within ESL/EFL classrooms. Keywords: word frequency; reading comprehension; vocabulary knowledge and size; corpus-based method linguistics

International audience; Compounds are morphologically complex words made of different linguistic parts. They are very prevalent in a number of languages such as French. Different psycholinguistic characteristics of compounds have been used in certain studies to investigate the mechanisms involved in compound processing (see Table 7). We provide psycholinguistic norms for a set of 506 French compound words. The words were normed on seven characteristics: lexeme meaning dominance, semantic transparency, sensory experience, conceptual familiarity, imageability, age of acquisition (AoA) and subjective frequency. Reliability measures were computed for the collected norms. Descriptive statistical analyses, and correlational and multiple regression analyses were performed. We also report some comparisons made between our normative data and certain norms obtained in other similar studies. The entire set of norms, which will be very useful to researchers investigating the processing of compounds, is available as Supplemental Material.

The present study used a repetition priming paradigm to investigate the basic morphological units stored in mental lexicon for Chinese as second language learners (L2) and Chinese native speakers (...

Compound surnames in Japanese show complex phonological patterns, which pose challenges to current theories of phonology. This dissertation proposes an account of the segmental and prosodic issues in Japanese surnames and discusses their theoretical implications.Like regular compound words, compound surnames may undergo a sound alternation known as rendaku, whereby the initial consonant of the second element becomes voiced (e.g. /yama + ta/ → [yama-da] ‘mountain-paddy’). The voicing alternation in surnames is somewhat different from that in regular compounds, however; its application is often affected by the features of the last consonant of the first element. Surnames also show unique prosodic patterns, which include an inverse correlation between accentedness and rendaku application. Although the peculiarities of surnames have been noted in the literature (see Sugito 1965 among others), no study has ever provided a full description or explanation of the patterns. The first goal of the dissertation is to account for why compound surnames are different from regular compounds in terms of rendaku application and accentuation.I claim that compound surnames are represented as single stems in the grammar due to their semantic non-compositionality and that their peculiar phonological patterns can be attributed to the application of stem-internal phonology. I present the results of a corpus study of existing surnames collected from social media, and a rendaku judgment experiment using nonce surnames. Both studies support the hypothesis that compound surnames follow the phonology of stems. The analysis opens a new way to investigate the sound patterns of proper nouns in general.Rendaku in surnames poses another theoretical problem since it exhibits both lexical irregularities and phonologically-conditioned productivity. The experimental results show that Japanese speakers apply rendaku productively based on phonological factors. However, a closer look at the patterns of real surnames indicates that rendaku is also highly lexicalized; besides phonological factors, the presence of voicing in a given surname is determined by the idiosyncratic properties of that surname. The challenge of capturing the lexicalized and productive aspects of a phonological phenomenon with a single grammar has been recognized but not always addressed in the literature (see Zuraw 2000; Moore-Cantwell and Pater 2016).To meet this challenge, I propose a Maximum Entropy Harmonic Grammar model (see Goldwater and Johnson 2003) with general phonological constraints and lexically-specific constraints along the lines of Moore-Cantwell and Pater (2016). I show that the proposed model with appropriate biases on the learning of constraint weights can not only capture the lexicalized rendaku patterns of existing surnames but also predict productive rendaku application in non-existing surnames. The analysis suggests that lexical factors should be incorporated into phonological grammar rather than simply specified in the lexicon.

Введение. Рассмотрены немецкие сложные существительные с компонентом Katze / Kater, а также прилагательные и глаголы с указанным компонентом, большое количество которых подтверждает продуктивность немецкого словосложения. Цель ‒ определить особенности семантики зоонима Katze в составе сложных слов, выявить структурный состав и тематические группы сложных слов с названным компонентом, что также даст представление о словообразовательных особенностях языка. Материал и методы. Центром значения исследуемых тематических групп сложных слов является зооним Katze / Kater. В подтверждение неоспоримой продуктивности словосложения в немецком языке в качестве материала для исследования было отобрано 172 сложных существительных с компонентом Katze и семь лексических единиц с компонентом Kater, из них 152 слова, в которых данный компонент является определительным словом, и 20 слов, где данный компонент ‒ определяющее слово. Кроме того, к этой группе слов примыкают прилагательные с указанным компонентом (17 слов) и три глагола. Номинационными признаками исследуемых сложных слов выступают метафорический и метонимический перенос, главной особенностью таких наименований является их смысловая двуплановость, т. е. «игра» переносного и буквального значений слова. Результаты и обсуждение. Показано, насколько активно компонент Katze / Kater выступает в качестве компонента немецких сложных слов. По своей структуре отобранные для исследования лексемы можно распределить на семь тематических групп, а по значению – на девять. Теоретическая значимость определяется результатами решения поставленной задачи. Исследование вносит вклад в развитие теории словообразования и семантики. Практическая ценность заключается в возможности использования результатов исследования при разработке лекционных курсов и семинарских занятий по лексикологии и истории немецкого языка, теории перевода. Заключение. Тематические группы сложных слов с компонентом Katze / Kater выражают непосредственное отношение к экстралингвистической реальности. Introduction. The article deals with the German compound nouns with the Katze / Kater component as well as adjectives and verbs with the component, a large number of which confirm the productivity of the German word composition. The purpose of the study was to determine the peculiarities of the semantics of the zoonym Katze in the composition of compound words, to identify the structural composition and thematic groups of compound words with the named component, which also gives an idea of the derivational features of the language. Material and methods. It is necessary to classify the vocabulary composition of the language to facilitate the study of it. The zoonym Katze / Kater is the center of meaning of the thematic groups of compound words studied by us. To confirm the undeniable productivity of word composition in the German language, there were selected 172 compound nouns with the Katze component and seven lexical units with the Kater component as material, this component is a definitive word of the 152 words where together with the 20 words with this component is viewed as a defining word. In addition to this group of words, adjectives with the indicated component (17 words) and 3 verbs are studied. Metaphorical and metonymic transfer are the nominal features of the studied compound words; the main feature of such names is their semantic bi-planarity, i.e. «Game» of figurative and literal meanings of the word. Results and discussion. The article shows how active the Katze / Kater is as a component of German compound words. According to their structure, the lexemes selected for the study can be divided into 7 thematic groups, and into 9 according to their meaning. The theoretical significance is determined by the results of solving the problem. The research contributes to the development of the theory of word formation and semantics. The practical value of the research is determined by the possibility of using the research results in the development of lecture courses and seminars on Lexicology and History of the German language, Translation theory. Conclusion. Thus, the results of the study confirmed the authors’ assumption that thematic groups of compound words with the Katze / Kater component express a direct relationship to extralinguistic reality.

An important question in psycholinguistics is whether or not the semantic transparency of words plays any role during the processing of compound words. Studies of different languages have produced ...

This study aims to describe the ecolexicon treasures which represent the scope of Lake Toba. The ecolinguistic theory is used in this study. The data in this study are lexicons related to the scope of siltation. Data collection methods used are interview and observation methods. The analysis used a qualitative descriptive method. The results revealed 29 lexica related to the silt environment with three categories of ecolexicon entities namely flora ecolexicon, fauna ecolexicon, and fishing gear ecolexicon. The lexicon category consists of nouns and verbs. There are lexicon forms that are basic, derivative forms in the form of repeated words, and compound words. Keywords: Fishing Gear; Lake Toba; Ekoleksikon; Fauna; Flora

Interference is the use of other language elements by individual bilingual languages. Several researchers have researched interference, but no one has examined the interference with Covid-19 as an object. This study aims to describe the forms of English language phonological, morphological, and syntactic interference to the Japanese language. This study used a qualitative descriptive research method, with data sources in the form of vocabulary or terms during the Covid-19 pandemic. The results of this study indicated that the phonological interference forms found are phoneme addition, phoneme insertion, and phoneme substitution, which are caused by differences in syllables. The morphological and syntax interference in the form of compound words and phrases caused by differences in the class of terms that form between the two languages.

Compound words are characterized by semantic and structural motivation due to the components that make up these words. The relationship between the components of compound words is quite complex, as they can change their meaning when creating a compound word. Moreover, there is a process of modification between the components of a compound word, and they themselves are subject to certain grammatical rules. Depending on the combination of components, there are two types of relationships: subordinate and coordinate. In subordinate components, one component semantically affects (modifies) another. Coordinative compound words are formed copulatively (by combining), without the semantic influence of one component on another. Coordinative compound words are primarily formed in colloquial layer of lexes. They are characterized by simple morphological form and semantic accuracy. However, coordinative-type compound words are not frequently used. Components of coordinative compound words evenly share features of a basic component. They may represent a combination of synonyms and antonyms (sour-sweet), parallel notions of synonymic doublets (coach-trainer). Moreover, coordinative compounds of American sports media discourse may be represented by compound words specific only to the aforementioned sphere. These lexical units may be formed with the help of pronouns, numeral, and proper names. A great deal of coordinative-type compound words use numeral to represent quantitative aspects of sports. They are always occasional and are not fixed in dictionaries as quantitative aspects they render may range within physical capacity of athletes and sports. Compound nouns that use proper names as their components always render a type of a match or characteristics of a certain sports event, in which people, whose names are indicated by the components, take part. An algorithm to distinguish coordinative compounds from other types of compound lexical units has been elaborated.

This article aims at discussing verb-noun compounds with a locative prefix in the nominal part of the compounds in Cinyanja. The singular and plural forms of the compounds have been presented to show that the complex forms are nouns. With regard to the internal structure, the compounds show that they have a phrasal structure. Since verb-noun compounds in this study resemble the structure of synthetic compounds in English, the analysis of these words followed the syntactic approach. The results show that internally, the compounds with a locative have a verb phrase internal structure, and follow the verb-argument word order. In the syntactic context, it is shown that the compounds with the phrasal internal structure function as determiner phrases because they can appear in the subject and object positions in simple sentences and relative clauses. Further, the entire compound word can be modified by adjectives, and be coordinated with simple nouns, which suggests that the compounds with a locative are indeed determiner phrases. Finally, with the application of the lexical integrity hypothesis, the results reveal that the compounds with the locative in the nominal part are genuine compounds because they adhere to the lexical integrity principle.

Questions about word formation remain one of the most pressing problems of modern linguistics. The relevance of this issue is increasing, especially for less-studied languages such as the Pashto language, since the vocabulary of the language is constantly being enriched under modern requirements. The need to express new concepts arising from progress in various spheres of life gives rise to the need to create new lexical units based on the language’s capabilities and resources. The study of this process on a scientifc basis, the defnition of its directions, the defnition of its specifcs based on the analysis of language material today is of great theoretical and practical importance. Composing copulative compound words is one of the interesting and almost unexplored areas of this topic in every respect. There are works in science in which this topic was partially touched upon, but more than 40 years have passed since the last of them were published. During this period, there have been signifcant changes in the composition of the vocabulary of the Pashto language, including in the methods of composing a copulative compound word. Since the vocabulary of a language is dynamic, the study of processes occurring in it in synchronous terms is always of scientifc signifcance. An important component aspect of this issue is the study of copulative compound words formed using prepositionsinfxes, as well as the connecting infx. This scientifc article is devoted to the analysis based on analytical and synthetic methods for the formation of copulative compound words with a combination of prepositions-infxes [ هپpә], [ انnā], [ رپpәr], [ هلlә], [ دdә] in the Pashto language, as well as on the place of the connecting-infx of [ واaw] in copulative compound word formation. In the article, the question in the specifc form of prepositional infxes and copulative compound words made with the use of the connecting infx [ واaw] is defned as the subject of research, and modern materials of the Pashto language-as the object of the research. The scientifc novelty of the work is also reflected in these issues. The article analyzes both groups of prepositioninfxes and connecting infxes

One importance of studying morphology in literary work is increase the vocabulary. Perhaps the biggest contributions to the English language of Shakespeare may be the addition of new words and phrases that have transformed the language and make it more vivid and descriptive. Shakespeare also changing nouns into verbs, verbs into adjectives, connecting words never used together, adding affixes, and devising words wholly original. This study aims to know how the words are formed through derivational and compounding process. In this paper, we take the data from some of William Shakespeare’s works. We use qualitative method by using morphological approach to analyze the data. Morphological approach focused on the identification and interpretation of the meaning of the words and the analysis of the morphemes attached to the words. We collect the data by downloading 11 of William Shakespeare's works, reading the words, selecting the data, and summarizing the data. Then, it’s followed by describing and determining the function of the morphemes and analyzing the change of the word class as techniques of analyzing the data. The result of this study shows that for derivational process, affix {-ish }, {-y }, {-less }, {-ate }, {-eous }, {fore- }, {pur- }, {fore- }, {-y }, and {un- } as adjectivalizer, affix {-ify }, {en- }, {un- }, and {fore- } as verbalizer, and affix {-er }, {-y }, and {-ment }, as nominalizer. For compounding process, we found there are two types of compound word : hyphenated compound and closed compound.

The article describes the features of word formation which are most typical for archaeology sublanguage / substantival composites and compound adjectives. Archaeological terminology is of some interest from a linguistic point of view, as it has numerous objects of study and is marked by its distinctive terminology. The description of the discovered archaeological material comes from the perspective of an integrative approach which allows to collate the results of research in many areas of both humanitarian and natural-scientific plan. The most productive way of designating and describing discovered archaeological sites is the morphological and syntactic method of term-formation. Stem-composition is the dominant way of word formation in the sublanguage of archaeology. Since the description of features and properties, the image of discovered objects occupies quite a large place in archaeological texts, the stem-composition proves to be productive for adjectives. Compound words serve as a mean of language economy and express significant information in compact forms and are a source of archaeological vocabulary extension.

This scientific article discusses the causes and conditions for the emergence of new words (neologisms)in the English language, and analyzes the special role of compounding (compound words) in the formation of neologisms in terms of word formation. Therefore, the results of a number of foreign scientific research were discussed. The study concluded that compound words are an effective method of forming neologisms and that their study is a requirement of our time

The article presents analyzes the role of modern newspaper discourse in enriching the lexical structure ofthe language of the media with complex words, describes the features of the functioning of complex words in the newspaper-journalistic context. The purpose of the study is to analyze modern newspaper discourse in terms of enrichment andreplenishment of the lexical structure of the language with complex words, as well as to describe the features of complexwords on the material of well-known all-Ukrainian newspapers in 2015–2020. The object of research is newspaperand journalistic texts as the main factor in replenishing and updating Ukrainian vocabulary. The subject of study is thepotential of complex words in the texts of modern newspapers. The research material was selected from well-known all-Ukrainian newspapers for the period 2015–2020. The results of the analysis of the functioning of complex lexical units inmodern newspaper discourse peculiarities allow us to draw the following conclusions: A large number of complex lexemesare recorded in modern newspaper discourse. It is due to the main purpose of the media — to respond quickly to topicalevents, processes, facts of our time. Compound words are used for different stylistic purposes; they allow you to createa communicative-pragmatic effect, that is, they cause a recipient’s response due to the impact on the reader. It reduces thecomplexity of lingual expression and increases the amount of information communicated. The main functions of newspaperdiscourse are to inform and influence the recipient using lingual means. The prospect of the study is seen in the study ofthe stylistic and communicative-pragmatic potential of complex words in various genres of newspaper discourse.

Recent second language (L2) reading studies have examined how characteristics of an individual learner and word-specific linguistic properties jointly predict successful L2 word-meaning inference, i.e., a learner’s ability to guess the meaning of an unknown word. Semantic transparency is one such word-specific property. Each constituent morpheme in a compound word contributes differently to the word’s overall meaning. As a result, words vary in the degree to which they are transparent or opaque. The ability to infer the meanings of these compounds is associated with broad linguistic knowledge that varies greatly across learners. This study explores how L2 linguistic knowledge as an individual learner factor and semantic transparency as a word-specific property interact to affect L2 learners’ word-meaning inference in Chinese. Two hundred and twelve adult L2 learners of Chinese in China completed six paper–pencil tasks, which measured participants’ short-term memory, linguistic knowledge, and meaning inference of compound Chinese words that varied in their semantic transparency. The results showed that linguistic knowledge interacted with semantic transparency in word-meaning inference: morpheme knowledge and grammatical knowledge were significant contributors of word-meaning inference only for transparent words when L2 learners’ short-term memory was controlled. These findings underscore how reading in an L2 involves the interplay between the learners’ characteristics (e.g., linguistic knowledge) and language-specific properties (e.g., semantic transparency).

This paper argues that compounding, the major source of word-formation in Chinese, and the root-and-pattern system in Hebrew involve fundamentally the same syntactic operations and observe the same locality constraints, despite the salient differences. More specifically, it addresses the well-known continuum that the coordinate and attributive compounds behave more like words, whereas resultative and subordinate compounds are much more like phrases. It puts forward the idea that this continuum can be accounted for by assuming that there is a distinction between word-formation from roots and word-formation from words, with the former giving rise to more lexical properties and the latter more phrasal properties. The paper also discusses some related issues, such as the correct formulation of word-level phases and the structure of the major types of compound words in Chinese.

Lexical inference through reading is considered an important method for vocabulary building; however, empirical research has not consistently offered strong evidence of the application of lexical inference in second language vocabulary learning. A recently burgeoning line of research focuses on second language (L2) lexical inference of compounds in Chinese, a language that is both orthographically and typologically distant from English. In this study, we asked intermediate level Chinese L2 learners to think aloud while performing inferencing activities. We discuss the benefit of supportive context to inferencing and learning, and learners’ coordinate and interactive use of context and word-internal cues. Further, we proposed a model that captures such interactivity and highlights the composite of Chinese L2 learners’ intraword awareness. This suggests that interactive use of various cue sources and a simultaneous focus on form and on meaning can lead to encouraging outcomes for lexical inferencing and retention.

This study focuses on compound word and its need to be mastered by teachers and English learners. There are new words coming up almost every day. Most of them are by combining of two different words, blending and many other morphological phenomena. It is commonly known as word-formation. The discussion covers on word-formation specifically on the types of compound word and its meaning. A new word is formed from the same or different word classes. This word formation must be mastered by the English teachers and also the learners of English. The Semantic theory is used just to study the meaning of the word not the sentence. This research uses descriptive qualitative method . The data were taken from The Time of the Oath Album By Helloween . The results show that t here are three types compound words found. Compound Noun is the most dominant followed by Adjective and Verb. The Endocentric Compound is the most productive compound in meaning. Keywords: Compound, Endocentric, Lyrics, Morphology, Word-formation

This paper examined Korean listeners'' perceptual patterns of coda consonants in the context of English and Korean place assimilations. This study also investigated whether perceptual salience was affected by assimilation type (i.e., labial place assimilation and velar place assimilation) and coda type (i.e., /t/, /d/, and /n/ in English, and /t/, /n/, /p/, and /m/ in Korean). In a discrimination experiment, English and Korean stimuli involving place assimilation were presented to twenty native-Korean listeners. The same response rates involving a target syllable and a compound word including the target syllable (e.g., gree[n], gree[ŋ] cup in English, and ga[n] ''liver'', ga[ŋ]gineung ''liver function'' in Korean) were analyzed. Results showed considerable perceptual differences between English and Korean stimuli. Korean coda consonants were less distinct than English coda consonants in the context of assimilation. Furthermore, perceptual salience was strongly affected by assimilation type in the Korean stimuli, whereas the effects of coda type were revealed only in the English stimuli. These findings were discussed with respect to absence or presence of a stop release, perceptual salience rankings of coda consonants, and perceptual asymmetry between stops and nasals.

The article deals with one of the most common types of word formation in German as word compounding. Compound nouns have become the object of study, as this part of the language leads the way in the formation of new words in this way. The relevance of the research is reinforced by the fact that German compound nouns differ by their multicomponent structure and are in the process of regular growth of their numbers, so they are attracting the attention of Germanists of different generations continuously. The study has examined the nature of the component composition of composites, the types of bonding between components, the types of constituent components, the role of the connecting element, the syllable’s accentuation of components of the compound noun etc. The compound can be built from nouns, adjectives, verbs or an invariable element (prepositions). There is no limit of the number of the associated words. The last word in the compound always determines the gender and plural form of the compound noun. The connectors or linking elements in existing German compound words often correspond to old case endings (e.g., plural, genitive). These endings expressed the relationship of the compound parts to one another. The article considers the causes of the formation of complex nouns. Compounds make the German language more flexible. In general, compounds are used to convey more information in one word and for reasons of language economy. Special attention deserves such a phenomenon as Denglish. This is the mashing of words from the two languages to create new hybrid words.

At first glance, the problem of distinguishing complex words from similar free syntactic combinations does not exist. But compound words are a reflection of "the diversity of linguistic activity." Therefore, one or more features sometimes is not enough to establish the identity of a compound word. And sometimes this is simply impossible, as some units correspond to all signs, while others do not. There are other units in the language, consisting of two or more words and outwardly similar to complex words. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish complex words from outwardly similar syntactic combinations and phraseological units. It is natural that you need to draw a line between complex words and free combinations, because if we take all units of two or more words that designate one concept (with varying degrees of semantic integrity) as complex, we will make a huge confusion in definition of complex words and phrases.

The structural peculiarities of the railway term formation is investigated in the article. It is demonstrated that the most common ways of the one component railway term formation are suffixation and prefixation. The prefixation-suffixation type is a less productive way of the word building. Compound words proved to form a large group of the railway terms. The relations among the components of a compound word represent a specific type of semantic and structural relations of the word in a word combination, where the terms which consist of «noun+noun», «adjective+noun» predominate. In the system of the English railway terminology among the component terms the most widespread are nouns that explains that nouns define processes, equipment, devices, and objects. This paper outlines some linguistic properties of technical terms. The article focuses on some linguistic features of a term. Being a linguistic object with the common and specific features of a language system a term has all lexical-semantic and formal features of the words and word combinations of a natural language. In the process of the affixation term building the semantics of a derived word is defined by an affix that is why an affix can bear a particular word building meaning. But having definite motivational relations between a derivative and a derived word the semantics of the derived word is not always determined by the meanings of its components. Deciding the semantics of a derived term many factors should be taken into consideration: conversion, the peculiarities of a compound word, polysemy etc. It should be underlined that morphological or affixation type of the term forming is based on the principles of word building of the literary language.

Language is a means of communication which is used by living beings to communicate with each other. There are many important components in language to create a successful communication, such as sound, sentence, meaning, and etc. One of the components is word. Word can be considered as a complex part in language since it has many different forms. Compound word, for example, is a word which is formed through one of the word-formation processes by combining one lexical item with another and thus produces a new word with a new meaning. This paper investigates the types of English compounds and the lexical categories which are resulted from the process of compounding. The first results showed that the types of English compounds are endocentric, exocentric, and copulative compounds. The second results showed that the lexical categories resulted from the process of compounding are noun compound, verb compound, and adjective compound. Based on the results, the researcher hopes that readers can gain deeper insight and knowledge on English compound words.DOI: doi.org/10.24071/llt.2020.230103

Taboo words represent a potent subset of natural language. It has been hypothesized that "tabooness" reflects an emergent property of negative valence and high physiological arousal of word referents. Many taboo words (e.g., dick, shit) are indeed consistent with this claim. Nevertheless, American English is also rife with negatively valenced, highly arousing words the usage of which is not socially condemned (e.g., cancer, abortion, welfare). We evaluated prediction of tabooness of single words and novel taboo compound words from a combination of phonological, lexical, and semantic variables (e.g., semantic category, word length). For single words, physiological arousal and emotional valence strongly predicted tabooness with additional moderating contributions from form (phonology) and meaning (semantic category). In Experiment 2, raters judged plausibility for combinations of common nouns with taboo words to form novel taboo compounds (e.g., shitgibbon). A mixture of formal (e.g., ratio of stop consonants, length) and semantic variables (e.g., ± receptacle, ± profession) predicted the quality of novel taboo compounding. Together, these studies provide complementary evidence for interactions between word form and meaning and an algorithmic prediction of tabooness in American English. We discuss applications for models of taboo word representation.

The article is devoted to the analysis of word-formation activity of the suffix - teka in modern Russian. The material was the data of modern dictionaries and a card file of the use of lexemes collected by the authors. The relevance of the study is due to the activation of the derivational potential of the formant of - teka in the Russian language. It is shown that there is still no definite opinion among linguistic scholars regarding the status of a component of Greek origin - teka : it is interpreted as a suffix, a connected root, a suffixoid. It is demonstrated by examples that it joins the free and connected foundations of Russian and foreign origin and expresses the meanings ‘collection’ and ‘repository’, metonymically related to each other and not always shared in dictionary interpretations. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of new tokens containing a suffixoid - teka ( pivoteka, lakoeka, enoteka, novoteka, poleznoteka, flirtoteka, etc.). t is noted that the ability of an affixoid to join free roots and the transparency of its semantics lead to the appearance of new formations. The article proves that this formant expands its compatibility in modern Russian. It is shown that it joins the foundations of not only the substantive, but also the adjective and verb type, while the mechanisms of language play are realized.

This paper describes the principles of material selection and presentation in the Explanatory Dictionary of Compound Words of the Russian Language (hereinafter the Dictionary). Only compound appellatives — i. e. abbreviations created with the help of non-initial abbreviate constructions — are included into the Dictionary. Their formal onomasiological status is essentially different from the formal onomasiological status of truncations and initial abbreviations. The former are identified as phonetic variants of their generating units rather than independent words. The latter appear to be based on artificial reduction of phrase components to their first sounds or letters and become units that are not isomorphic to their equivalent word combinations. A synchronic approach was used to describe compound appellatives. Firstly, according to this approach, only words that possess text equivalents in a language at a particular moment in time are seen as abbreviations. Secondly, there exist multiple motivations (decryptions) for most units presented in the Dictionary. Compound appellatives have never been an object of a separate lexicographic description; they are rarely considered in either explanatory or abbreviation dictionaries. This Dictionary is necessary due to the idiomatisation of compound words’ semantics which requires full interpretation in addition to the interpretation through equivalents traditional for abbreviation dictionaries. Moreover, multiple text equivalence that forms the polysemy of abbreviations has never been considered and, therefore, described before. The formation of compound abbreviated appellatives has now become, perhaps, the most productive way of word formation, and the Dictionary will reflect the most current trends in Russian. The article also describes the following principles of material presentation in the Dictionary: dictionary entries are organised based on abbreviation groups; decryption stimuli (stereotypical decoding) of an abbreviate construction are presented in the block of an abbreviation group; dictionary entries describe equivalence nests of abbreviations that include an interpretation block, a block of textual equivalents, a block of lexical equivalents and a block of abbreviated derivatives.

The article focuses on the Anglicism "koronawirus" in the Polish language. Its principal aim was to excerpt the compound nouns with the productive stem "korona-", to discuss their status, and to group them into semantic fields. Among such neologisms, numerous hybrid creations, a few pseudoanglicisms, as well as one loanword were found. They can be grouped into at least 11 semantic fields referring to socioeconomic, political and cultural reality in the time of COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, the Polish adjective "koronawirusowy" is discussed. As a constituent of a Polish noun phrase, it usually complies with the English sentence structure. Also, basic comparative research on the productivity of the stem "korona-", and its foreign language counterparts in Polish, English and German was conducted.

This study discusses the types of hate speech in ‘Ikan Asin’ dialog. The data were collected from the dialog in YouTube ‘Video Galih Menghina A. Fairus Bau Ikan Asin’ that published by ‘Viralin Aja’ YouTube Channel on July, 2019. The object of this study was the sentence which contains dysphemism. The method of this study was simak bebas libat cakap also applied to collect the data because the researcher only listens to the dialogue on the YouTube video and not involved in the conversation, the researcher only as the observer. The technique of data analysis was descriptive qualitative. The findings of the study were the types of dysphemism such as; word, phrase and clause. The word types of dysphemism were divided into two types; they are words and compound words. This study also found hate speech in ‘Ikan Asin’ dialog, such as insult, unpleasant acts, and hoax. The interviewee used the insult words and some kinds of hate speech to insult his ex-wife.

El libro contiene, fundamentalmente, siete capítulos de los cuales el más relevante es el capítulo cinco porque trata sobre la caracterización de las palabras compuestas en aimara, estrictamente como composición nominal. En ciertas áreas léxicas o campos semánticos la composición es un fenómeno productivo. Se considera pertinente abordar los procedimientos morfológicos muy pocos estudiados. Se reconoce la importancia de los factores semánticos, fonológicos y sintácticos. Los compuestos en la lengua aimara dependen de la interpretación del significado convencional atribuido y reconocido por la comunidad aimara. Gracias al proceso de composición los aimaras pueden nombrar su entorno circundante.

One of the most representative morpho-phonological features of Finnish is the existence of vowel harmony. Back vowels (a, o, and u) and front vowels (a, o, and y) cannot appear in the same monomorphemic word (e.g., POYTA [table] but not POYTA)-the vowels e and i are considered "neutral" and can accompany either front or back vowels (e.g., PELASTYA [get frightened]). Previous research has revealed that native speakers of Finnish use vowel harmony to help segment multilexeme compound words where each lexeme may differ in vowel harmony (e.g., tyomaa = tyo+maa [workplace]). In Experiments 1 and 2, we examined whether vowel harmony has an effect on the initial moments of monomorphemic word processing using the masked priming technique (lexical decision: Experiment 1; naming: Experiment 2). A target word (e.g., MANTY [pine]) could be preceded by a harmonious or disharmonious prime (manty-MANTY vs. manty-MANTY; monty-MANTY vs. monty-MANTY). As further controls, we also included a comparison with two harmonious conditions differing in the presence of a diacritical letter (manty-MANTY vs. menty-MANTY) and a letter similarity comparison with disharmonious primes (manty-MANTY vs. monty-MANTY). To further examine whether vowel harmony has an effect at later phases of visual word processing, Experiment 3 compared the recognition of harmonious and disharmonious pseudowords in a single-presentation lexical-decision task (e.g., HOPEA vs. HOPEA; baseword: HAPEA [shame]). We found slower responses for harmonious than for disharmonious pseudowords. Taken together, these findings reveal that, while Finnish readers are sensitive to vowel harmony, this effect does not occur in the initial stages of processing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

This study investigated the effects of semantic transparency of Chinese disyllabic compound words on Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners’ incidental learning of word meanings in sentence-level reading and passage-level reading. The accuracy of the learners’ lexical inferencing was compared among various types of words (transparent, semi-transparent, and opaque words), different context lengths (sentence and passage contexts), and learners with different L1 backgrounds (with and without a Chinese character background in their L1s). In the study, ninety CSL adult learners were asked to infer the meanings of target words in the sentence context and the passage context. The results indicated that the effects of semantic transparency and context length on inferencing accuracy were significant, while the effect of L1 background was not. It was also found that there were significant interactions between transparency and context length as well as between transparency and L1 background.

The research paper aims to show the potential of word-formation models of the German language representing the interrelation between the two most significant constituents of the picture of the world – the concepts of the LIVING BEING and TIME. The analysis is carried out on the material of substantive composite words, i.e. verbal representatives of the propositional structure AKTOR – SITUATION/PRÄDIKAT (SITUATION) – ZEIT/ACTOR – SITUATION/PREDICATE (SITUATION) – TIME, coupled with the models of the German language N+N, N+N(v), A+N. Nouns generated on the basis of a given mental structure is supposed to model the idea of activities and the life cycle of wild life objects, as well as of abstract and inanimate entities to which a person attributes anthropomorphic properties. A special substance, the activity of which is correlated with a specific fragment, a segment in the cyclic time model is stated to be cognitively distinguished in the conceptual structure of such a name. The paper under study particularly emphasises the fact that natural phenomena, flora and fauna species receive temporary characteristics taking into account their natural cycles, whereas acyclic situations that break stereotypical ideas about the time of human activity/passivity are considered part of the nomination sphere of a man’s activities. In the process of modelling knowledge about the existence of all things in the world, a great number of temporal nominees in the class of modern German nouns linked to this propositional structure is proved to indicate the informative and communicative significance of such language units.

The aim of the study is to optimize the classification of the types of the compound word-building with components of Greek and Latin origin; the research is based on the sample of 2882 substantive compound terms of the German clinical terminology. The researches apply the descriptive analytical and quantitative methods to the study. It is stated, that the words with complex morphemic structures can be formed by composite and non-composite types of word-building. The paper presents the complex classification of different ways of the compound word-formation considering following criteria: the type and the base of the word-formation process (morphological and morphological-and-syntactic ways of the compound word-formation), the number of the word-building processes, taking place within the compound word-formation (pure and mixed types of the compound word-formation). The analysis of the material reveals the dominance of the morphological compound word-building. In the medical terminology the following subtypes of the compound word-formation are distinguished: stem + terminological element, term + term, stem + term, with the latter two to be the most productive.The use of terminological units as structural elements of compounds and their employment in classification allows to avoid excessive extension of stock of morphemes used in the so-called intermediate zone. Further arrangement of word-building patterns is carried out according to the genetic criterion. In German clinical terminology the dominance of hybrid terms with German components has been established; among homogeneous compounds the terms consisting of Greek rather than Latin or German components are more widely represented. The proposed classifications are applicable to the material of medical terminologies in other languages and enable their accurate comparison.

This study focused on translating the correct compound words into Arabic that become a problem from the Arabic learners as they translate these words into literal translation. The way in which this study was carried out was based on the scientific approach: the descriptive analytical approach for the analysis of the correct translation of the compound words, the method of testing and resolution to learn the effect of translating compound words on Arabic learners and the resolution was composed of nine axes. This study has shown a number of results, the most important of which are: compound words are a set of two or more words that have the same meaning, analysis of the correct translation of the compound words from (KBBI) into three sections, namely: Compound words that were Contrary to the composition of the Arabic vocabulary, of compound words in the type of conventional expression compound words that correspond to the composition of the Arabic vocabulary, and The field study found that the correct translation of the compound words increases the terminology and vocabulary of students to develop the competency level of their language, The correct translation of compound words gives positive effect for development of Arabic learners.

Throughout the history Turkic nation interacted with several nations due to certain reasons such as neighbourhood, war, politics and trade; so that Turkic language also interacted with their languages about words and grammatical structures. There are today many cultural and linguistic studies about borrowed words in Turkish from those languages, while less studies about loaned words to those can be found. Turkic language, however, as an old and rich language, has loaned numerous words to many languages. It has also loaned some words to German in consequence of interactions due to war, bureaucracy, immigration etc. Most of those words are outcomes of Turkic culture. The fact that the relations between both nations are not intensive, however, has adversely affected the loaned words to German. In this study, following that the relations between these nations and the reasons of loaned words to German are briefly analysed, Turkic words in German are determined through certain dictionaries and studies; and they are consequently categorised. Duden Universalworterbuch, Groses Worterbuch der Deutschen Sprache and Wahrigfremdworterlexion, admitted as the significant dictionaries of German language, as well as Turkce Verintiler Sozlugu and certain studies which are relevant to the subject are used as corpus for this determination. The dictionaries by Turkish Language Association are prefered to determine the original Turkic forms of those words; in case of the absence in these dictionaries, their etymology given in German dictionaries or their form used in Turkce Verintiler Sozlugu are taken as the original. The derivative and compound words originated from one single word are aggregated in one article. In addition, not only Turkish but also other Turkic languages are regarded in the study, which aims to analyse those loaned words in total.

The present article is aimed at characterising compound words used in the modern mass media, which includes the analysis of their use and functioning in this sphere. Classification of compound words with the determination of their functional potential was performed by means of linguistic observation, definitional and contextual analyses, as well as by using a descriptive method. The author presents classifications of compound words, which are based on thematic and derivational criteria. The article is addressed to language teachers, graduate students, students interested in studying and identifying trends in the development of the modern Russian language.

This is a accepted manuscript version of the following article: Nesset, T. & Sokolova, S. (2019). Compounds and culture. Conceptual blending in Norwegian and Russian, published in Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 17(1), 257-274, available at https://doi.org/10.1075/rcl.00034.nes. This study explores compounds from the perspective of conceptual blending (conceptual integration), and argues that the meaning of compounds arises through the interaction of three levels: (i) input spaces established for the head and non-head components, (ii) a blended space involving compression and emergent structure, i.e. elements not imported from the input spaces, and (iii) the language system as a whole and the culture this system is part of. With regard to (iii) we propose the “Culture-to-Compound Hypothesis”, according to which compounding can be recruited to represent culturally “novel” content in languages where compounding enjoys a peripheral status in the language system. The examples discussed in the article come from Norwegian (a Germanic language where compounding is a central word- formation mechanism) and Russian (a Slavic language where compounding is more marginal in the language system).

The Large Database of English Compounds (LADEC) consists of over 8,000 English words that can be parsed into two constituents that are free morphemes, making it the largest existing database specifically for use in research on compound words. Both monomorphemic (e.g., wheel) and multimorphemic (e.g., teacher) constituents were used. The items were selected from a range of sources, including CELEX, the English Lexicon Project, the British Lexicon Project, the British National Corpus, and Wordnet, and were hand-coded as compounds (e.g., snowball). Participants rated each compound in terms of how predictable its meaning is from its parts, as well as the extent to which each constituent retains its meaning in the compound. In addition, we obtained linguistic characteristics that might influence compound processing (e.g., frequency, family size, and bigram frequency). To show the usefulness of the database in investigating compound processing, we conducted a number of analyses that showed that compound processing is consistently affected by semantic transparency, as well as by many of the other variables included in LADEC. We also showed that the effects of the variables associated with the two constituents are not symmetric. In short, LADEC provides the opportunity for researchers to investigate a number of questions about compounds that have not been possible to investigate in the past, due to the lack of sufficiently large and robust datasets. In addition to directly allowing researchers to test hypotheses using the information included in LADEC, the database will contribute to future compound research by allowing better stimulus selection and matching.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the phenomenon of a difference in meaning of Tibetan adjectives, based on their relative position. In this process, the paper presents the common aspects of the phenomenon of the Tibetan compound word by discussing Italian noun phrases and compound words. In Tibetan compound words, the category of ‘adjective+noun’ can only represent the meaning of an abstract concept, while the category of ‘noun+adjective’ has the additional indicative meaning that refers to a specific object. This is due to the fact that an adjective can have two attributes when it modifies a noun. In Italian, adjectives can be divided into predicative and referential adjectives, based on their attributes. Predicative adjectives can modify nouns both before and after, while referential adjectives can only modify nouns in the latter position. In Italian, according to this phenomenon, ‘adjective+noun’ has only one meaning in both noun phrases and compound words, while ‘noun+adjective’ has two meanings. In the Tibetan compound word denoting referential objects among the ‘noun+adjective’ category, the semantic structure is changed from a second type to first type. In addition, even in the case of compound words which seem to have a referential meaning in the ‘adjective+noun’ category, that meaning is limited to a simple combination of the meaning of the individual adjectives and nouns. This indicates that the adjectives are still used with a predicative meaning.