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In Europe and North America, the majority of dogs are kept as companion animals. It is assumed that dogs owned as pets have a better welfare than working dogs or dogs used in research. However, the welfare of these pet animals will vary depending on the attitude, dog handling ability, economic status, and lifestyle of their owners, and the physical environment they inhabit. People might provide physically for their companion animals but may not provide them with an environment that is sufficiently complex mentally and socially. Many dogs live alone for the greater part of their lives and this may cause anxiety. The close relationship between humans and companion animals can result in greater expectations on behalf of the owner than the dog can provide, and disappointment may result in the dog being ignored, abandoned, or abused. Dogs are often given as presents to people who do not want them. Dogs may be fashion statements or used for support by people with inadequate social lives or paranoia. Dogs living in back yards may be isolated and ignored. However many pet dogs live good lives with their human companions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are difficulties in defining the normal behaviour of dogs because of the different breeds, the difference between the behaviour of domestic dogs and the wolf, and the variance between the environments in which feral dogs and owned dogs live. Many dogs display behaviours which are normal but unacceptable to humans and restricting these behaviours limits the dog's ability to behave normally and express its normal repertoire of behaviours. Restriction may lead to abnormal behaviours that may be anxiety-based. There are genetic and ontogenic elements in the aetiology of abnormal behaviours. Abnormal behaviours may indicate that the management or environment of the individual dog, which expresses them, are inadequate. Some abnormal behaviours, such as continuous circling, may impact on the physical wellbeing of the affected dog. Providing an adequate enriched environment for a dog to stop engaging in these abnormal behaviours may be impossible. Thus, dogs may be put on lifelong medication to help them cope with the damage caused by an inadequate environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are unwanted dogs in all countries and their fate is a reflection of the wealth of these countries and people's attitudes towards animals and dogs in particular. In most countries, there are animal shelters of some description which take in unwanted dogs and either re-home or kill them. The number of unwanted dogs and dogs entering shelters is decreasing in many European countries, the USA and Japan, and possibly worldwide. The time dogs spend in shelters and the quality of life therein impacts directly on their welfare and may affect their subsequent behaviour if they are re-homed. Dogs are surrendered to shelters for various reasons, many are unwanted puppies. While shelters attempt to maximise the welfare of their inmates, many dogs are held alone in single cages and may not receive sufficient attention due to shortages of staff and volunteers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The morphology and physiology of the dog makes it a useful model for medical and dental research. The recent clarification of breed genotypes and the existence of breed-specific diseases make the dog a particularly suitable model for research into inherited diseases common to humans and dogs. It is likely that more dogs will be used in biomedical research in the near future. It is important that the welfare of dogs used in research is optimal for the dog's sake and also because animal models of disease work best if the subjects are healthy and not stressed. Many dogs held in laboratories are probably chronically stressed. Improved breeding and training programmes, and better housing and management are required if laboratory-based dogs used in research are to have good standards of welfare. This will require improvements in social enrichment and physical facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greyhounds are superb canine athletes. They have few inherited diseases, a beautiful physique and a gentle disposition. However, greyhound racing is a physically demanding sport. There is a disparity between the number of greyhound puppies born and those that make it to the race track. Many are killed because they are inadequate athletes. Dogs are frequently injured and their racing careers are often shortened by injury. Track surfaces and topography have been adjusted to increase speed and reduce injury. Racing dogs are valuable and are generally well managed but when they are finished racing the majority are killed and only a few are kept for breeding. Greyhound adoption clubs attempt to re-home dogs after they have finished racing. Sled dogs race in tough physical conditions and many race in endurance-type races. These dogs have to be well managed to complete these races. Sled dogs are examined by veterinarians before, during and after racing and may be stopped from racing if they are injured, sick or seriously stressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are more books about the training of dogs than the training of any other species. This suggests that there is great interest in the subject and that there are many trainers who believe their advice is valuable. Most modern textbooks relate to the dog as a companion rather than a working animal. Indeed, there are few books dealing with the training of dogs that work with sheep or cattle. Most books recommend positive reinforcement as the most important training technique. Inadequate training and a lack of control are a major causes of dogs been abandoned, neglected and of public disquiet about canine behaviour. The misuse of punishment and training tools such as electric training collars has a negative effect on the welfare of dogs and may result in fearful, timid dogs that are stressed even by the presence of their owner or handler. However, there is not enough known about the physiological responses to different methods of training and whether training dogs for sports such as agility is stressful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pain is an unpleasant but important experience. It enables an animal to identify and respond to dangerous stimuli and to learn to avoid them in the future. Pain is inevitable but in the domestic dog it should be prevented and controlled whenever possible. Assessment of pain in the dog is a controversial undertaking, comprising two major methodologies. In one method, pain is assessed by interpreting canine behaviour using a number of scales. This method depends on subjective human evaluation of pain and is influenced by individual human perceptions of pain and its expression in dogs. In the other method, the behaviours of dogs subjected to painful procedures with and without analgesia, are monitored rigorously and compared. The behaviours which indicate pain are identified and can then be used to assess the efficacy of various analgesic protocols. The use of analgesics in dogs by veterinarians is still limited but is growing as safer and cheaper analgesics become available. Preventing and alleviating pain is an important way to improve the welfare of dogs whn injured, after surgery, or suffering from chronic painful diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The health of dogs in wealthy, developed countries is generally excellent. The number of veterinarians primarily interested in canine medicine and surgery is high and continues to increase. Knowledge of the diseases of dogs and their prevention and treatment has increased greatly in the last 40 years and continues to grow. This advance in knowledge has allowed veterinarians to support the extreme physical characteristics found in some dogs. It has also allowed veterinarians to prolong the lives of dogs affected with previously incurable diseases. Veterinary surgery is also now highly developed and surgery such as artificial hip replacement is becoming common. Organ transplantation will soon be normal practice. Health insurance for dogs has enabled many clients to avail themselves of what previously would have been prohibitively expensive treatment for their dogs. It has facilitated the development of veterinary practice. The health of the majority of dogs living in underdeveloped countries remains poor and infectious disease epidemics and parasites are very common in these populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The domestic dog is a facultative carnivore with omnivorous potential if circumstances demand. The dietary requirements of the dog are met by a quality commercial dog food but many free-ranging dogs are not fed at all. Poor quality dog foods may cause dietary deficiencies, some of which may be fatal. Some commercial dog foods may not meet the behavioural requirements of a dog. A constant diet of dry food is probably boring and dogs may benefit from variety in their diet including household scraps, large bones and treats. Obesity is caused by overfeeding and too little exercise and may be the most important welfare problem of dogs in the post-industrial developed world. In contrast undernutrition is a serious welfare problem elsewhere. In the last three decades the development of diets for dogs of different types and at different physiological stages, and the use of prescription diets to support medical therapy have improved the welfare of dogs significantly. The latter have led to exciting improvements in reversing age-related diseases and behaviours of old dogs. Reducing food intake increases the longevity and health of dogs and current recommendations may overestimate the energy requirements of adult dogs. More research needs to be undertaken on the behavioural needs of dogs in regard to the physical character of their diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are several hundred breeds of dogs and they are usually categorised according to function. Many of these dogs are now companion animals and do not engage in what they were initially bred for. Pedigree dogs used for breeding are registered by a kennel club. Most dog breeders have one or two breeding animals and they try to produce puppies that meet the breed standard for physical and behavioural characteristics. Some of the breed-standard physical characteristics are extreme and may cause welfare problems. Inbreeding and line-breeding have tended to increase the incidence of hereditary diseases. Emphasis on physical characteristics may have led to breeders paying insufficient attention to behaviour. The physical and behavioural characteristics of some breeds make them unsuited as companion animals. There is now a more definite effort being made to reduce the incidence of hereditary diseases in some breeds but the costs of developing and using diagnostic tests may make it difficult for breeders to utilise them effectively. Genetic counselling for breeders is a major development in veterinary science and will hopefully reduce hereditary disease while maintaining breed characteristics. Minor changes in the physical breed standard of some breeds could have significant effects on the welfare of pedigree dogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of dogs are free-ranging and may or may not be owned. Many are appreciated for their sentinel activities and disposal of garbage but there are also fears in many countries of zoonotic diseases especially rabies. The nutrition and health of these dogs is poor and their lives short and possibly brutal. In most wealthy developed countries free-ranging dogs are uncommon as dog control legislation forces owners to identify and restrict their dogs and dogs found roaming are caught, held and either reclaimed, re-homed or euthanased. The means to control free-ranging dog populations are well known, but the political will or the financial capability to do so is often not available. Free-ranging dogs become a political issue when zoonoses or dogattacks become important and then dog control programmes may be initiated. These are often under funded, incomplete and short lived. Legislation, animal control and education are essential to dog control. De-sexing and killing are standard tools in dog population control but education, registration, and habitat modification are also important. The methods used to kill dogs vary depending on philosophy, funding and the availability of drugs and trained personnel. The method used to control free-ranging dogs varies, depending on the philosophy of the community. In some countries where killing is not acceptable, de-sexing and habitat adjustment are necessary to control freeranging dogs. Dogs are highly fecund and if food is available the removal of dogs from a location will be rapidly followed by the immigration of dogs from other areas. The welfare of free-ranging dogs is the most significant welfare issue of dogs and assistance from animal welfare organisations in the developed countries to animal welfare organisations and veterinarians in developing countries may be the most effective way to improve dog welfare worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wolf was domesticated and became the dog more than 15,000 years ago. Since then dogs have been used by humans for many purposes. Initially they probably assisted humans during scavenging and hunting and acted as sentinels. Later they were used to to guard and to drive livestock. More recently the dog is being used for an ever increasing range of activities and it has become a close companion for many people. The social behaviour of the dog makes it suitable as a companion but its need to live in a group may be compromised when individual dogs live with busy people in modern postindustrial societies. The welfare of working and sporting dogs may be compromised at work but for many of them work is a positive experience. Police, military, racing and hunting dogs may be injured during training or work. Gundogs may be shot by accident. Dogs used for fighting are often seriously injured and killed. This is an unacceptable use of dogs even if the breeds used to fight are game to do so. In some countries dogs are eaten and their welfare may be compromised by inadequate management particularly during marketing and slaughter. The welfare of guide dogs for the blind and other assistance dogs is generally high. Dogs used for showing may be modified surgically to meet breed standards. Tail docking, ear cropping and dew claw removal are common practices in some countries for specified breeds. There is a dearth of information on the longevity and health of working and sporting dogs and on the stress experienced by these animals during training and work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]