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BACKGROUND: Arabinoxylan is the main fiber component in corn and corn co-products that are commonly included in pig diets. However, this fiber fraction is resistant to enzymatic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid are covalently linked to arabinoxylan, so it is likely that the majority of these hydroxycinnamic acids are excreted in feces. However, data to confirm this have not been reported. The objective of this research was therefore to quantify the ferulic and p-coumaric acids in a diet based on corn and soybean meal (SBM) and in a diet based on corn, SBM, and distillers’ dried grains with solubles, as well as in feces from pigs fed these diets. RESULTS: The concentration of bound ferulic and coumaric acids in diets was greater in the corn-SBM-DDGS diet and in feces from pigs fed this diet than in the corn-SBM diet and feces from pigs fed that diet. The disappearance of free coumaric acids was greater (>85%) than that of bound phenolic acids (

Copper-dependent lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) classified in Auxiliary Activity (AA) families are considered indispensable as synergistic partners for cellulolytic enzymes to saccharify recalcitrant lignocellulosic plant biomass. In this study, we characterized two fungal oxidoreductases from the new AA16 family. We found that MtAA16A from Myceliophthora thermophila and AnAA16A from Aspergillus nidulans did not catalyze the oxidative cleavage of oligo-and polysaccharides. Indeed, the MtAA16A crystal structure showed a fairly LPMO-typical histidine brace active site, but the cellulose-acting LPMO-typical flat aromatic surface parallel to the histidine brace region was lacking. Further, we showed that both AA16 proteins are able to oxidize low-molecular-weight reductants to produce H2O2. The oxidase activity of the AA16s substantially boosted cellulose degradation by four AA9 LPMOs from M. thermophila (MtLPMO9s) but not by three AA9 LPMOs from Neurospora crassa (NcLPMO9s). The interplay with MtLPMO9s is explained by the H2O2-producing capability of the AA16s, which, in the presence of cellulose, allows the MtLPMO9s to optimally drive their peroxygenase activity. Replacement of MtAA16A by glucose oxidase (AnGOX) with the same H2O2-producing activity could only achieve less than 50% of the boosting effect achieved by MtAA16A, and earlier MtLPMO9B inactivation (6 h) was observed. To explain these results, we hypothesized that the delivery of AA16produced H2O2 to the MtLPMO9s is facilitated by protein-protein interaction. Our findings provide new insights into the functions of copper-dependent enzymes and contribute to a further understanding of the interplay of oxidative enzymes within fungal systems to degrade lignocellulose.

Auto-oxidation of flavan-3-ols leads to browning and consequently loss of product quality during storage of ready-to-drink (RTD) green tea. The mechanisms and products of auto-oxidation of galloylated catechins, the major flavan-3-ols in green tea, are still largely unknown. Therefore, we investigated auto-oxidation of epicatechin gallate (ECg) in aqueous model systems. Oxidation products tentatively identified based on MS included δ- or γ-type dehydrodicatechins (DhC2s) as the main contributors to browning. Additionally, various colourless products were detected, including epicatechin (EC) and gallic acid (GA) from degalloylation, ether-linked ε-type DhC2s, and 6 new coupling products of ECg and GA possessing a lactone interflavanic linkage. Supported by density function theory (DFT) calculations, we provide a mechanistic explanation on how presence of gallate moieties (D-ring) and GA affect the reaction pathway. Overall, presence of gallate moieties and GA resulted in a different product profile and less intense auto-oxidative browning of ECg compared to EC.

Laccase-mediator systems (LMS) are potential green tools for oxidative degradation and modification of lignin. Although LMS convert both phenolic and nonphenolic lignin structures, phenolic structures are more prone to react. Remarkably, in a previous study on laccase/HBT treatment of grasses, we observed the accumulation of p-coumaroyl moieties in residual lignin, even though such groups are free phenolic structures. To provide more insights into this apparent paradox, here, we studied the reactivity of p-coumaroyl groups in lignin and model compounds using HSQC NMR and RP-UHPLC-PDA-MSn, respectively. It was found that a p-coumaroylated model compound (VBG-pCA), in contrast to its nonacylated analogue, was rapidly converted by laccase and laccase/HBT, resulting in oxidative coupling and HBT-mediated degradation, respectively. The high reactivity of VBG-pCA was related to the phenolic character of the p-coumaroyl group. Upon laccase/HBT treatment of two grass lignin isolates, p-coumaroyl groups accumulated in residual lignin, indicating that p-coumaroyl groups in polymeric lignin display different reactivity than those in model compounds. On the basis of additional experiments, we propose that p-coumaroyl groups in lignin polymers can be oxidized by laccase/HBT but undergo HSQC-undetectable radical coupling or redox reactions rather than degradation.

Catechol motifs are ubiquitous in nature, as part of plant, animal and microbial metabolites, and are known to form complexes with various metal cations. Here, we report for the first time that complexation with transition metal cations, especially Fe(iii), results in rapid 16O/18O exchange of the catecholic hydroxyl groups with H218O. We discuss the implications of this finding for mechanistic studies using H218O and potential relevance for production of 18O-labeled catechol derivatives.

Enantioselective reactions are at the core of chemical synthesis. Their development mostly relies on prior knowledge, laborious product analysis and post-rationalization by theoretical methods. Here, we introduce a simple and fast method to determine enantioselectivities based on mass spectrometry. The method is based on ion mobility separation of diastereomeric intermediates, formed from a chiral catalyst and prochiral reactants, and delayed reactant labeling experiments to link the mass spectra with the reaction kinetics in solution. The data provide rate constants along the reaction paths for the individual diastereomeric intermediates, revealing the origins of enantioselectivity. Using the derived kinetics, the enantioselectivity of the overall reaction can be predicted. Hence, this method can offer a rapid discovery and optimization of enantioselective reactions in the future. We illustrate the method for the addition of cyclopentadiene (CP) to an α, β-unsaturated aldehyde catalyzed by a diarylprolinol silyl ether.

Lignin is a highly abundant aromatic polymer in nature, but its controlled cleavage or cross-linking is a major challenge and currently hindering industrial applicability. Laccase (L) and laccase/mediator systems (LMS) are promising tools for enzymatic lignin modification, but to date, their overall reaction outcome is hard to predict and control. This research aimed to understand the reactivity of native and sulfonated β-O-4 linked lignin structures in L and LMS treatments. Trametes versicolor laccase, and the mediator hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) were used, and reaction products were analyzed using UHPLC-MS n and MALDI-TOF-MS. Polymerization was observed for both the native and sulfonated phenolic compounds, suggesting that sulfonation does not affect radical coupling of the phenolic lignin subunits. In contrast, sulfonation of the non-phenolic lignin structure prevented C α oxidation and cleavage by L/HBT, which was explained by an increased C α -H bond dissociation energy of ∼10 kcal mol -1 upon sulfonation. Overall, our results indicate that lignin sulfonation drives the overall outcome of LMS incubations towards polymerization.

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) have recently been shown to significantly enhance the degradation of recalcitrant polysaccharides and are of interest for the production of biochemicals and bioethanol from plant biomass. The copper-containing LPMOs utilize electrons, provided by reducing agents, to oxidatively cleave polysaccharides. Here, we report the development of a β-glucosidase-assisted method to quantify the release of C1-oxidized gluco-oligosaccharides from cellulose by two C1-oxidizing LPMOs from Myceliophthora thermophila C1. Based on this quantification method, we demonstrate that the catalytic performance of both MtLPMOs is strongly dependent on pH and temperature. The obtained results indicate that the catalytic performance of LPMOs depends on the interaction of multiple factors, which are affected by both pH and temperature. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00253-017-8541-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Laccase-mediator systems (LMS) have been widely studied for their capacity to oxidize the nonphenolic subunits of lignin (70–90% of the polymer). The phenolic subunits (10–30% of the polymer), which can also be oxidized without mediators, have received considerably less attention. Consequently, it remains unclear to what extent the presence of a mediator influences the reactions of the phenolic subunits of lignin. To get more insight in this, UHPLC-MS was used to study the reactions of a phenolic lignin dimer (GBG), initiated by a laccase from Trametes versicolor, alone or in combination with the mediators HBT and ABTS. The role of HBT was negligible, as its oxidation by laccase occurred slowly in comparison to that of GBG. Laccase and laccase/HBT oxidized GBG at a comparable rate, resulting in extensive polymerization of GBG. In contrast, laccase/ABTS converted GBG at a higher rate, as GBG was oxidized both directly by laccase but also by ABTS radical cations, which were rapidly formed by laccase. The laccase/ABTS system resulted in Cα oxidation of GBG and coupling of ABTS to GBG, rather than polymerization of GBG. Based on these results, we propose reaction pathways of phenolic lignin model compounds with laccase/HBT and laccase/ABTS., This paper contributes to a more fundamental understanding of lignin modification by laccase-mediator systems.

Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) leaves of 8 month (8m) plants showed more enzymatic browning than those of 3 month (3m). Total phenolic content increased from 4.6 to 9.4 mg/g FW in 3m and 8m, respectively, quantitated by reverse-phase-ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet-mass spectrometry (RP-UHPLC-UV-MS). The PPO activity was 6.7 times higher in extracts from 8m than from 3m leaves. Substrate content increased from 0.53 to 2.45 mg/g FW in 3m and 8m, respectively, of which caffeic acid glycosyl esters were most important, increasing 10-fold with age. Caffeic acid glycosides and vitexin derivatives were no substrates. In 3m and 8m, nonsubstrate-to-substrate ratios were 8:1 and 3:1, respectively. A model system showed browning at 3:1 ratio due to formation of products with extensive conjugated systems through oxidative coupling and coupled oxidation. The 8:1 ratio did not turn brown as oxidative coupling occurred without much coupled oxidation. We postulate that differences in nonsubstrate-to-substrate ratio and therewith extent of coupled oxidation explain browning.

Over the past years, laccase/mediator systems (LMS) have received a lot of attention as potential sustainable tools for biocatalytic lignin degradation. Nevertheless, it has often been reported that Cα-oxidation, rather than ether bond cleavage, is the main result of LMS treatments, which limits the overall efficiency and effectiveness. Remarkably few studies have attempted to influence this product profile and thereby enhance the effectivity of LMS-catalyzed lignin degradation. Here, we studied the influence of buffer properties on the product profile of a β-O-4′ linked lignin model dimer upon conversion by a laccase/hydroxybenzotriazole system. We show that the ratio between β-O-4′ ether cleavage and Cα-oxidation can be substantially increased by using unconventional buffer properties (i.e., highly concentrated buffers at near-neutral pH). Whereas

Laccase-mediator systems (LMS) are potential green tools to improve the valorization of lignocellulosic biomass by selective degradation of lignin. Despite extensive attention devoted to lignin degradation by LMS in literature, knowledge on the underlying mechanisms is largely limited to model compound studies. Here, we report a mechanistic study on the delignification of wheat straw (WS) and corn stover (CS) by a laccase/HBT system. Quantitative 13C-IS py-GC-MS analysis revealed that WS and CS were delignified in the range of 28-51% (w/w). Based on a combination of py-GC-MS, 2D NMR, SEC and RP-UHPLC-MS, extensive structural characterization of both residual and solubilized lignin structures was performed, from which we reconstructed the degradation pathway of native lignin by laccase/HBT. For the first time, we show that degradation of native lignin in the plant cell wall matrix by LMS occurs via both Cα-Cβ cleavage and ether cleavage of β-O-4′ aryl ethers, and that the latter primarily occurs via cleavage of the β-O bond. Cγ-Coumaroylated substructures were found to be more recalcitrant towards degradation than non-acylated substructures. In addition to lignin degradation, our results provide evidence for grafting of HBT onto lignin.

Lignin degradation and valorization is one of the major challenges in biorefinery. A potential green tool for lignin degradation or modification is the use of laccase/mediator systems (LMS). Treatment of lignin with LMS results in lignin radicals, which may react further via multiple pathways, resulting in lignin degradation, modification or polymerization. The overall outcome of LMS treatments of lignin is, currently, hard to predict, as the reactions of lignin induced by LMS treatments are insufficiently understood. In this thesis, we investigated the reactivity of lignin upon laccase and LMS treatments by using various lignin model compounds as well as lignocellulose and lignin isolates as substrates. We demonstrated that the balance between degradation, Cα-oxidation and polymerization of lignin is dependent on multiple factors, such as the choice of mediator and the initial structure of the lignin substrate. In addition, we revealed that buffer properties play a key role in the balance between Cα-oxidation and degradation of lignin structures by a laccase/hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) system, and that altering buffer properties allows to enhance bond cleavage of a lignin structure by >1 order of magnitude. Laccase/HBT treatment of wheat straw and corn stover was shown to result in up to 51% delignification of the biomass. Based on the insights obtained from the model compound studies, and by using a combination of HSQC NMR spectroscopy and py-GC-MS, we showed, for the first time, that the laccase/HBT system degrades lignin via cleavage of Cβ-O, O-4’ and Cα-Cβ bonds. Overall, by studying the reactivity of various lignin substructures, this thesis provided in-depth insights into the reactivity of lignin upon laccase and LMS treatments.

Lignin degradation by white-rot fungi is an essential step in terrestrial carbon cycling and has great potential for biotechnological applications. Selective white-rot fungi have been recognized for their ability to effectively delignify lignocellulose, but the underlying mechanisms, particularly in situ, have largely remained elusive to date. In this work, we elucidate specific degradation routes of β-O-4 aryl ethers in actual lignocellulosic biomass for the industrially relevant selective white-rot fungus Ceriporiopsis subvermispora. Multidimensional NMR and py-GC-MS analyses together with enzymatically synthesized model compounds enabled, for the first time, the identification of various diagnostic lignin cleavage products in residual wheat straw. Our results support that in situ ligninolysis by C. subvermispora is initiated by single-electron transfer, which then cascades into the cleavage of Cα-Cβ, Cβ-O, and O-4-aryl bonds of β-O-4 aryl ethers. The high abundance of 1-(benzyl)-2,3-dihydroxypropan-1-ones indicated that β-O-|4 cleavage is a more important pathway than previously considered. Our approach highlights key diagnostic substructures for providing mechanistic insight into fungal ligninolysis.

Simple β-O-4’ linked dimeric model compounds are often targeted as substrate to mimic the reactivity of lignin in enzymatic or chemical treatments. These models mimic the structure and reactivity of regular β-O-4′ linkages in lignin, but are less suitable to predict the reactivity of acylated β-O-4′ substructures, which are abundant in various types of lignin. Here, we present a one-step lipase-catalyzed acylation of a commercially available lignin model compound with p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, cinnamic acid and acetic acid as acyl donors. This facile procedure allows to obtain new and relevant lignin model compounds at milligram scale, with simple purification of products and unreacted substrate.