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Most states require that a police candidate's suitability be assessed through preemployment psychological evaluations. Given the psychological stress officers experience in the line of duty, it is possible that experienced candidates would produce scores indicating greater dysfunction on psychological testing relative to inexperienced candidates. No known research has investigated whether police candidates produce different preemployment test scores across experience levels. The present study sought to address this gap in the literature and offer data to guide evaluators' interpretation of test scores for candidates with prior law enforcement (LE) experience. We used a sample of 400 police candidates (18.5% women) evaluated for positions at several LE agencies for whom Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-3 (MMPI-3) scores were available. Results showed no practically meaningful differences when comparing MMPI-3 scores of candidates with no prior experience, less than 5 years of experience, and 5 or more years of experience. We also compared frequencies at which the three groups elevated MMPI-3 scales at cutoffs specified in Assessing Police and Other Public Safety Personnel Using the MMPI-3: A Practical Guide (Corey & Ben-Porath, 2022) and found minimal differences. Together, these findings indicate that MMPI-3 scores can be interpreted consistently with published guidelines regardless of a candidate's prior LE experience. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural stereotypes that link Black race to crime in the United States originated with and are perpetuated by policies that result in the disproportionate criminalization and punishment of Black people. The scientific record is replete with evidence that these stereotypes impact perceivers' perceptions, information processing, and decision-making in ways that produce more negative criminal legal outcomes for Black people than White people. However, relatively scant attention has been paid to understanding how situations that present a risk of being evaluated through the lens of crime-related stereotypes also directly affect Black people. In this article, I consider one situation in particular: encounters with police. I draw on social psychological research on stereotype threat generally as well as the few existing studies of crime-related stereotype threat specifically to illuminate how the cultural context creates psychologically distinct experiences of police encounters for Black people as compared to White people. I further consider the potential ramifications of stereotype threat effects on police officers' judgments and treatment of Black people as well as for Black people's safety and well-being in other criminal legal contexts and throughout their lives. Finally, I conclude with a call for increased scholarly attention to crime-related stereotype threat and the role it plays in contributing to racial disparities in policing outcomes, particularly with regard to diverse racial, ethnic, and intersectional identities and personal vulnerability factors, and the systemic changes that might mitigate its deleterious effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Ideological shifts in mental health-care policy such as deinstitutionalisation have meant police have had to make decisions about the care of persons with a mental-health crisis. This study examines how police in five English counties respond to crisis calls when employing the powers afforded in section 136 of the Mental Health Act 1983, and the effectiveness of the national Street Triage pilot scheme. Qualitative interviews with 30 police officers and mental-health nurses were collected as data sources. The analysis shows that police have previously struggled with the significant number of crisis calls, whilst also finding mental-health services inadequately sourced, leading to some detentions in police cells as alternatives to health-based places of safety. However, the scheme has made positive changes in alleviating these issues when mental-health nurses are co-located with police, highlighting the need to strengthen their partnership by facilitating the sharing of information, responsibilities and decision making in order to ensure police cells continue to be avoided as alternative places of safety.

Objective: To understand how knowledgeable and equipped the law enforcement agents in Nigeria are to enforce the drink-drive law., Method: We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional study of Law Enforcement Agents in four Nigerian states selected by convenient sampling. The study utilized a pre-tested questionnaire designed to obtain subjects' demographic data, elicit their knowledge about drink-drive law, and understand how equipped the subjects are. A team member walked respondents through the questions to ensure comprehension and accuracy with completion of the questions., Result: 496 law enforcement agents were studied. They were 414(83.5%) male and 82(16.5%) females, mostly aged 21-40 years (64.3%). Close to half (48.2%) were police officers, while 35.7% were officers in the Federal Road Safety Corp (FRSC). 45% of respondents had secondary/high school education, while 39.5% had bachelor's degree; with a significant majority in the FRSC. 269(54.2%) respondents had convicted a road user of drunk driving/riding on the basis of subjective assessment. The use of breathalyzers and awareness of permissible Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)/Breath Alcohol Concentration (BrAC), was reported by a few respondents (5%), mostly FRSC officers, and others with relatively higher educational attainment. The majority were ignorant of the approved BAC limit in Nigeria (0.05 g/100 dl) and objective methods of assessing breath alcohol concentrations., Conclusion: In Nigeria, there is a huge knowledge gap on the drink-drive law and the acceptable penalties for offenders in Nigeria among law enforcement agents. The law enforcement agents lack equipment for objectively detecting drunk driving among road users. Our findings call for an urgent intervention in the training and practice of law enforcement agents if the prevalence of RTC arising from drunk driving will be reduced in Nigeria.

To improve criminal justice responses to sexual assault, it is vital to understand the factors that influence decisions made by police and prosecutors and how these decisions overlap. Although decisions made at the prosecutorial stage are largely reliant on the actions of the police, the prosecutors' charging decisions often differ from how the police classify incidents. Guided by the focal concerns perspective, this study examined 231 cases of adult sexual assault incidents reported to the police to identify which factors were predictive of congruent charging decisions and arrest. The results supported the focal concerns perspective and revealed that legal and extralegal factors were influential at both of these points. Legally relevant factors that focused on the collection of evidence were paramount in decisions at both stages; however, extralegal variables such as timely reporting and whether the victim physically resisted were also significantly related to decisions at each stage. Implications arising from the results are discussed.

Objective: Based on guiding principles such as parens patriae , juvenile probation officers (JPOs) not only supervise youth, but in certain jurisdictions they also decide how control-oriented their conditions will be. JPOs' perceptions of parenting could be related to their decision making. This study examined: (a) whether JPOs' perceptions of the home were associated with the conditions they placed on youth; (b) if JPOs' perceptions of the home aligned with the youths' perceptions; and (c) if JPOs' control-oriented conditions were associated with changes in parenting practices., Hypotheses: (H1) JPOs' perceptions of the home should be positively related to youths' perceptions of parenting practices. (H2) JPOs' perceptions of the home should be positively associated with the conditions imposed. (H3) JPOs' control-oriented conditions may be positively associated with increased parental supervision, yet they may also be associated with lessened parental supervision., Method: The sample consisted of 265 male youth (mean age = 15.41; 76.6% Latino, 19.25% White, 0.75% Black) who were arrested for the first time and placed on supervised diversion., Results: Latent class analyses indicated that there were three supervision conditions classes: standard, moderate, and high control. JPOs' perceptions of the home did not align with youths' perceptions of parenting practices (e.g., rule setting, curfew setting, and monitoring) yet they were the strongest predictor of receiving the most control-oriented conditions. Surprisingly, parental rule setting, curfew setting, and monitoring declined once youth were placed under supervision, and declines did not differ based on how control-oriented their official conditions were., Conclusions: Parents are thought to be vital in justice-involved youths' success. Yet within this sample, officers' perceptions of the family did not align with youths' perceptions. Further, parental supervision declined equally regardless of how control-oriented youths' supervision conditions were. Parents must be better integrated into the process to enhance the success of youth on community supervision. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The development of forensic DNA testing has led to the discovery of hundreds of cases of mistaken eyewitness identification in which innocent people were convicted. Although these discoveries of wrongful convictions from mistaken identification based on DNA testing have been a surprise and shock to the legal system and the public, psychological scientists have been less surprised. This is because psychological scientists were "blowing the whistle" on the eyewitness identification problem for decades prior to forensic DNA testing. Today, most law enforcement agencies in the United States have adopted reformed policies and procedures on eyewitness identification that are based on research by experimental social and cognitive psychologists. This article describes core aspects of this research and how the research has managed to have this impact on the U.S. legal system. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

This study aimed to extend previous research on the experiences and factors that impact law enforcement personnel when working with distressing materials such as child sexual abuse content. A sample of 22 law enforcement personnel working within one law enforcement organisation in England, United Kingdom participated in anonymous semi-structured interviews. Results were explored thematically and organised in the following headings: "Responses to the material", "Impact of working with distressing evidence", "Personal coping strategies" and "Risks and mitigating factors". Law enforcement professionals experienced heightened affective responses to personally relevant material, depictions of violence, victims' displays of emotions, norm violations and to various mediums. These responses dampened over time due to desensitisation. The stress experienced from exposure to the material sometimes led to psychological symptoms associated with Secondary Traumatic Stress. Job satisfaction, self-care activities, the coping strategies used when viewing evidence, detachment from work outside working hours, social support and reducing exposure to the material were found to mediate law enforcement professionals' resilience. Exposure to distressing material and the risks associated with this exposure were also influenced by specific organisational procedures implemented as a function of the funding available and workload. Recommendations for individual and organisational practices to foster resilience emerged from this research. These recommendations are relevant to all organisations where employees are required to view distressing content., Competing Interests: This study was carried out in affiliation with the commercial company Qumodo. This affiliation does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Objective: Drawing on recent work in policing and organizational psychology, we examined factors related to openness to organizational change and to adopting evidence-based interview techniques among law enforcement investigators., Hypotheses: We hypothesized that a procedurally fair organizational climate would predict outcomes tied to organizational change, mediated by organizational identification and perceived legitimacy. We also predicted that procedural justice factors would be stronger predictors than outcome-oriented factors (i.e., rewards and sanctions)., Method: Study 1 surveyed law enforcement investigators (N = 711) about their attitudes toward and behaviors within their organization (i.e., perceived procedural fairness of one's organization, identification, legitimacy, compliance, empowerment, and extra-role behavior). Study 2 conceptually extended this survey to interviewers (N = 71) trained in a new, evidence-based interviewing approach adding likelihood of future use of the novel interviewing approach as an outcome., Results: In Study 1, the more investigators thought their organization had a procedurally fair climate, the more they identified with the organization and perceived it as legitimate. Framing compliance, empowerment and extra-role behavior as associated with openness to change, we found that legitimacy predicted compliance and tendency toward extra-role behavior (i.e., going "above and beyond"), while level of identification predicted feelings of empowerment and extra-role behavior. Study 2 partially replicated findings from Study 1 and found that motivation to attend the training also predicted likelihood of future use., Conclusions: These studies highlight the value of a procedurally just organizational climate framework in understanding law enforcement interrogators' propensity toward implementing new evidence-based interrogation techniques. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

In response to the global pandemic COVID-19, the Irish government has called upon the Garda Síochána to implement an unparalleled mode of policing to mitigate and contain the spread of the Coronavirus. Studies investigating smaller scale epidemics, such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), indicate that staff at the frontlines of an outbreak are exposed to an insuperable amount of stress and experience increased psychological morbidities as a result. Furthermore, research not only indicates that heighted levels of psychological distress are an occupational hazard associated with the law enforcement profession, but that members of the Garda Síochána feel their mental health needs are largely unmet by their organisation. Given the pandemic's propensity to expose officers to indeterminate echelons of physical and psychological threat; there has never been a more appropriate time to explore the potential burdens associated with 'policing' a pandemic, question the governments capacity to address the psychological support needs of frontline professionals, and plan future research for best practice.

Past research applying Donald Black's theory of the behavior of law to sexual assault case processing has focused on victim decisions to report the crime to the police. This study builds on and extends prior research by examining the next stage of legal mobilization (i.e., arrest). Using secondary data on 310 cases from the 1982-2012 Sexual Assault Kit Backlog Study in Los Angeles, California, the current study explores the effects of victim, offender, and case characteristics on arrest. The results suggest limited support for the theory in this victimization context. Implications for theory, research, and criminal justice practice are discussed.

Background: The unpredictable, and sometimes dangerous, nature of the occupation exposes officers to both acute and chronic stress over law enforcement officers' (LEO)  tenure. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1) Describe multi-level characteristics that define high-stress calls for service for LEO; and 2) Characterize factors that impact cumulative stress over the course of a LEO's shift., Methods: Qualitative data were collected from 28 LEOs at three law enforcement agencies in the Dallas-Fort Worth areas from April 2019 to February 2020. Focus group data were iteratively coded by four coders using inductive and deductive thematic identification., Results: Five multi-level factors influenced officer stress: 1) officer characteristics (e.g. military experience; gender); 2) civilian behavior (e.g. resistance, displaying a weapon); 3) supervisor factors (micromanagement); 4) environmental factors (e.g. time of year); and, 5) situational factors (e.g. audience present; complexity of calls). Four themes that characterized cumulative stress: 1) cyclical risk; 2) accelerators; 3) decelerators; and 4) experience of an adverse event., Conclusions: LEOs become susceptible to adverse events (e.g. injury, excessive use of force) after repeated exposure to high-stress calls for service. Ongoing exposures to stress continue to occur throughout the shift. Our long-term goal is to interrupt this repetitive, cumulative process by restricting the number of consecutive high-risk, high-intensity calls an officer is permitted to respond to.

Aim: Police action is frequently discussed and almost always monitored. The aim of this systematic review is to identify the psychological and social factors underlying police officers' decisions to use force., Methodology: Scientific articles were selected from six databases (PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, HeinOnline, ScienceDirect, PubMed)., Results: We found 923 articles matching our search, and 52 were retained based on their results regarding the psychological factors underlying police officers' decisions to use force and the decision-making process itself. We found that the most frequently studied factors were belonging to an ethnic minority, carrying a conducted energy device (CED), the police department's policies and managerial organization, and the environment in which the encounter occurred. However, it seems that the most predictive factor in the decision to use force is the resistance and behavior of the suspect., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest Authors report no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Limited research exists in the area of police mental wellness and suicide prevention, especially regarding programs utilized by these agencies. The purpose of this project was to gain a better understanding of the prevalence of use of police officer wellness promotion and suicide prevention programs implemented in the United States and an understanding of the perceptions of program effectiveness (Part A). We also sought to determine whether differences exist in the mental wellness and perspectives of programming of officers from agencies who utilize suicide prevention and wellness programs compared to those agencies who do not (Part B). Data for Part A was collected directly from agencies via a stratified random sample of city police departments and sheriff's offices nationwide. Part B entailed completion of online surveys by individual officers from agencies participating in Part A. The final sample included 55 agencies for Part A and 144 officers for Part B. At the agency level (Part A), Employee Assistance Programs or counseling services were the most common programs offered, and, notably, planning for programming was inconsistent or not well established. At the officer level (Part B), almost 25% of respondents did not know whether their agency had programming; 35% did not feel their agency supports its officers' mental wellness. For officers who did feel their wellness was supported, they reported significantly less stress and higher overall well-being. Of officer respondents, 12.4% indicated it was either "quite" or "very likely" they would attempt suicide someday. Implications and suggestions for law enforcement agencies are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The complexities of modern policing require law enforcement agencies to expand how officers are trained to do their jobs. It is not sufficient for training to focus solely on the law or on perishable skills; such as arrest and control; defensive tactics; driving; and firearms. The present manuscript addresses the critical importance of infusing academy training with the psychological skills essential for officers to meet the contemporary challenges of police work. The authors suggest that the skills (i.e., cognitive; emotional; social; and moral) discussed in this paper may improve officers' wellness as well as promote relationships between police officers and community members. Specific methods of incorporating these skills in academy training are offered.

The beliefs of police, as the point of first contact with the justice system, may help to explain disproportionate minority contact between police and young people. Color-blind racial beliefs, a form of implicit racism in which racial differences are denied, are more strongly endorsed by police than by laypeople. Using a 2 (youth race) × 3 (offense severity) experimental design, 339 officers participated in an online study examining the influence of youth race, offense severity, and officers' color-blind racial beliefs on officers' reported likelihood of interacting with young people. Officers with lower levels of color-blind beliefs reported they would be less likely to interact with Black youth. Additionally, attrition analyses indicated that officers assigned to the Black youth condition were more likely to drop out when asked to complete the measure of color-blind beliefs. Policy and practice implications are discussed, with a focus on promoting greater discussion of color-blind ideologies in multicultural trainings for police officers and increasing frank discussions about race and racial issues., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Community policing is often seen as a way to repair fractured relationships between law enforcement and the public. Despite its relationship-building promise and widespread department-level adoption, individual officers show varying levels of support for community policing which can harm policy implementation. Why are some officers more supportive of community policing than others? Prior research suggests that demographic factors such as the officer's gender, race, age, and education can explain this variance. Across these studies, however, there are several contradicting or non-replicating findings. Conflicting findings may result from differences by department or differences in methodology or temporal variance - but most policing studies focus on a single department. We begin to adjudicate between the possible explanations for conflicting findings using roll-call survey data from 741 officers across three neighboring police departments in 2016 and then a replication with 452 officers from one of the original departments in 2019. We find that experience with community policing consistently influences support for the practice while officer gender, age, and education consistently do not. Other results do not replicate across department or time, although we do find non-replicating significant factors associated with officer support for community policing. Our findings also suggest that departmental and temporal aspects help to explain why policing studies often do not replicate or generalize to other places or contexts., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

What do policing leaders think and know of forensic science? Beyond crime scene investigators or detectives, how do police senior managers perceive the role, utility and limitations of forensic science? Very few empirical studies have addressed the issue. Forensic scientsts should be concerned about the perception that law enforcement senior managers have of their discipline for two reasons. First, strategic and financial decision-makers are obviously key players in the overall administration and provision of forensic science, either as a supervisor, money provider or as a customer. Second, literature has highlighted that other actors involved in forensic science underestimate the scope and possibilities offered by forensic science, hence limiting its exploitation and potential. Following interviews with 18 police senior managers from Quebec (Canada), this study shows that they generally restrict forensic science to a reactive discipline whose role and utility is to identify offenders and support the Court. This understanding of forensic science, like that of many others including a significant share of forensic scientists, differs from the perception of other police activities in modern law enforcement agencies where proactive action is sought. Considering these findings and the growing body of literature which calls for forensic science to connect more tightly with policing and security, we advocate a more extensive education of police leaders regarding the scope of forensic science., (Copyright © 2019 The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Longitudinal research following discreet traumatic events reveals distinct symptom trajectories in untreated survivors of trauma. Trajectories within communities exposed to shared, prolonged violence involving subgroups differing in perspectives, and roles during the event have not been studied. This study examined trajectories of posttraumatic stress (PTS) and depressive symptoms secondary to exposure to violence during civil unrest in citizens (n = 311) and law enforcement (n = 255) over 1.5 years following exposure. Latent class growth modeling was used to examine trajectories of PTS and depressive symptoms. Four-class quadratic solutions for both PTS and depressive symptoms demonstrated best fit. Similar patterns emerged for such that most participants were classified as resistant (57% and 67%, respectively), followed by resilience (23.8% and 17.2%), chronic (12.6% and 12.0%), and worsening (6.1% and 4.4%). When all predictors were entered in a single model, race, and membership in citizen or law enforcement groups did not distinguish trajectories of recovery. Higher income and social support emerged as consistent protective factors against PTS and depressive symptoms, while trauma history emerged as a risk factor for PTS. Women were more at risk for depressive symptoms only. Implications for improving police/civilian relations in Ferguson, Missouri, and other communities are discussed., (© 2018 Society for Community Research and Action.)

Aims: There is a clear association between alcohol use and offending behaviour and significant police time is spent on alcohol-related incidents. This study aimed to test the feasibility of a trial of screening and brief intervention in police custody suites to reduce heavy drinking and re-offending behaviour., Short Summary: We achieved target recruitment and high brief intervention delivery if this occurred immediately after screening. Low rates of return for counselling and retention at follow-up were challenges for a definitive trial. Conversely, high consent rates for access to police data suggested at least some outcomes could be measured remotely., Methods: A three-armed pilot Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial with an embedded qualitative interview-based process evaluation to explore acceptability issues in six police custody suites (north east and south west of the UK). Interventions included: 1. Screening only (Controls), 2. 10 min Brief Advice 3. Brief Advice plus 20 min of brief Counselling., Results: Of 3330 arrestees approached: 2228 were eligible for screening (67%) and 720 consented (32%); 386 (54%) scored 8+ on AUDIT; and 205 (53%) were enroled (79 controls, 65 brief advice and 61 brief counselling). Follow-up rates at 6 and 12 months were 29% and 26%, respectively. However, routinely collected re-offending data were obtained for 193 (94%) participants. Indices of deprivation data were calculated for 184 (90%) participants; 37.6% of these resided in the 20% most deprived areas of UK. Qualitative data showed that all arrestees reported awareness that participation was voluntary, that the trial was separate from police work, and the majority said trial procedures were acceptable., Conclusion: Despite hitting target recruitment and same-day brief intervention delivery, a future trial of alcohol screening and brief intervention in a police custody setting would only be feasible if routinely collected re-offending and health data were used for outcome measurement., Trial Registration: ISRCTN number: 89291046.

This research tests whether a police officer's decision to apprehend a suspect triggers confirmation bias during an interrogation. The study also tests two strategies to reduce confirmation bias: (1) decoupling decision to apprehend from interrogation and (2) reducing cognitive load for the interrogating police officer. In Experiment 1, Swedish police officers ( N = 60) were faced with 12 scenarios in which they either had to decide for themselves whether to apprehend a suspect or were informed about the corresponding decision by another police officer or a prosecutor. Participants then prepared questions for a suspect interrogation and evaluated the trustworthiness of the suspect's denial or confession. The same method was used in Experiment 2 but with law and psychology students ( N = 60) as participants. In Experiment 3, psychology students ( N = 60) prepared interrogation questions either by freely producing their own or by choosing questions from a preset list. Overall, apprehended suspects were interrogated in a more guilt presumptive way and rated as less trustworthy than non apprehended suspects. However, the tested debiasing techniques, primarily reducing cognitive load for the interrogating police officer, hold some potential in mitigating this bias. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

Background: On May 14, 2013, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) proposed that states lower the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) illegal limit from 0.08 to 0.05 g/dL (also referred to as the 0.08 law and the 0.05 limit, respectively). In March 2017, this recommendation was signed into law in the State of Utah., Objective: The objective of this survey is to investigate perceptions regarding enforcement of the 0.05 g/dL BAC limit., Method: Opinions of law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and defense attorneys were obtained through a series of questionnaires and focus groups., Results: Survey data were collected from 32 law enforcement officers, 20 prosecutors, and 4 defense attorneys. The participants rated the usefulness of the NHTSA's driving while intoxicated (DWI) driving cues lower for the 0.05 limit than for the 0.08 law. Some of the participants believed that training would be needed in regard to sobriety testing under the 0.05 limit. Participants also stated that adequately preparing for prosecution of drunk drivers would be more difficult under the 0.05 limit. In addition, it was believed that drunk driving cases are more likely to be withdrawn and fewer plea agreements and guilty pleas are likely under the 0.05 limit. Prosecutors were concerned that the 0.05 limit would result in poorly investigated cases and overburden the court system. Defense attorneys were concerned about the social and economic costs of a 0.05 limit., Discussion: Overall, it appears that the 0.05 limit is viewed as enforceable and it will save lives; however, the usefulness of the NHTSA DWI Detection Guide and of the standardized field sobriety tests need to be established for lower BACs, and efforts must be made to educate people regarding the relationship between BAC and impairment and impairment and driving with the risk of injury and death., Conclusion: Though the 0.05 limit offers promise in saving lives, the following issues associated with changing the limit to 0.05 need to be resolved prior to implementation: Validating the sobriety tests for the 0.05 limit; if needed, modifying the sobriety tests to make them effective and valid at the 0.05 limit; and training law enforcement personnel and educating the public regarding the 0.05 limit.

Patients with traumatic injuries often interact with police before and during hospitalization, particularly when their injuries are due to violence. People of color are at highest risk for violent injuries and have the poorest outcomes after injury. The purpose of this study was to describe how injured, Black patients perceived their interactions with police and what these perceptions reveal about police involvement within trauma care systems. We combined data from two qualitative studies to achieve this aim. The first was ethnographic fieldwork that followed Black trauma patients in the hospital through the physical and emotional aftermath of their injuries. The second was a qualitative, descriptive study of how patients experienced trauma resuscitation in the emergency department (ED). Both studies were conducted between 2012 and 2015 at the Trauma Center at Penn, an academic medical center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The present study includes data from 24 adult, Black participants undergoing treatment for injury. We reanalyzed all interview data related to law enforcement encounters from the scene of injury through inpatient hospitalization and coded data using a constant comparative technique from grounded theory. Participants described law enforcement encounters at the scene of injury and during transport to the hospital, in the ED, and over the course of inpatient care. Injured participants valued police officers' involvement when they perceived that officers provided safety at the scene, speed of transport to the hospital, or support and information after injury. Injured participants also found police questioning to be stressful and, at times, disrespectful or conflicting with clinical care. Communities, trauma centers, and professional societies have the opportunity to enact policies that standardize law enforcement access in trauma centers and balance patients' health, privacy, and legal rights with public safety needs., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

State laws are awash with discord concerning whether a police officer's request or court order necessarily obligates physicians to perform a body fluid analysis of an arrested, conscious, nonconsenting suspect. Police typically bring arrestees directly to the emergency department (ED), and federal courts have begun to wrestle with the implications of the Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act (EMTALA), which requires that anyone presenting to the ED be screened for treatment. Some state laws require health care providers to comply with any police request for lab analysis, while other states offer more leeway to physicians. Recent trends in federal case law interpreting EMTALA suggest that a medical screening exam is not required for patients brought by police specifically for a blood or urine sample unless either the arrestee requests medical care or a prudent observer would believe medical care was indicated. This article answers two questions: What happens when a police officer presents to the ED requesting service on behalf of an arrestee? What does EMTLA require of physicians in response? We survey current state statutes, review recent state and federal case law, describe example policies from various hospitals, and conclude with recommendations for hospital risk managers., (© 2017 American Society for Healthcare Risk Management of the American Hospital Association.)

Throughout the United States, hundreds of thousands of sexual assault kits (SAKs) (also termed "rape kits") have not been submitted by the police for forensic DNA testing. DNA evidence can help sexual assault investigations and prosecutions by identifying offenders, revealing serial offenders through DNA matches across cases, and exonerating those who have been wrongly accused. In this article, we describe a 5-year action research project conducted with 1 city that had large numbers of untested SAKs-Detroit, Michigan-and our examination into why thousands of rape kits in this city were never submitted for forensic DNA testing. This mixed methods study combined ethnographic observations and qualitative interviews to identify stakeholders' perspectives as to why rape kits were not routinely submitted for testing. Then, we quantitatively examined whether these factors may have affected police practices regarding SAK testing, as evidenced by predictable changes in SAK submission rates over time. Chronic resource scarcity only partially explained why the organizations that serve rape victims-the police, crime lab, prosecution, and victim advocacy-could not test all rape kits, investigate all reported sexual assaults, and support all rape survivors. SAK submission rates significantly increased once criminal justice professionals in this city had full access to the FBI DNA forensic database Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), but even then, most SAKs were still not submitted for DNA testing. Building crime laboratories' capacities for DNA testing and training police on the utility of forensic evidence and best practices in sexual assault investigations can help remedy, and possibly prevent, the problem of untested rape kits. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

Law enforcement officials and prosecutors have been called "gatekeepers" of the criminal justice system, as their discretionary decisions determine case outcomes. Using the focal concerns perspective as our theoretical foundation, we explore the factors that influence arrest and charging decisions in intimate partner sexual assaults (IPSA) reported to Los Angeles law enforcement in 2008. Quantitative findings are supplemented with qualitative examples from Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) detectives interviewed in 2010 and charge evaluation sheets from complaints referred to Los Angeles prosecution in 2008. Attempting to expand its theoretical relevance, we develop an alternative conceptualization and operationalization of the focal concerns perspective that is more appropriate to IPSA cases. Findings suggest that arrest decisions are motivated by suspect blameworthiness, community protection, and practical constraints and organizational consequences. In addition, charging decisions are influenced by community protection and practical constraints. Extralegal factors did not influence decision making. Directions for future research are discussed.

Law enforcement officers all across the world are exposed to violence, confrontation, and traumatic incidents. They regularly witness death and suffering and are at risk of personal injury. Psychiatric sequelae include an increased risk for trauma-related symptoms, depression, alcohol-use disorders, and stress-related medical conditions. Law enforcement officers have been applying for early disability retirement pensions at an increased rate for stress-related psychiatric and medical conditions. As a result, law enforcement agencies are prematurely losing valuable resources, officers with training and experience. Departments have become proactive in trying to address mental health issues to prevent psychiatric disability by implementing employee wellness plans and stress reduction interventions. Programs have been developed to mitigate the effects of stress on law enforcement personnel. Many law enforcement agencies have developed strategies to encourage early confidential referral for psychiatric treatment. They utilize peer support groups and employee assistance programs and develop alliances with mental health professionals. When these approaches fail, a fitness for duty process can be used to identify impairment in work functioning due to psychiatric factors with the prospect of later returning the officer to full duty. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., (Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Introduction: Physicians regularly encounter victims of violence. Although some at-risk groups are increasingly recognized as such, the risks faced by prisoners and detainees are often overlooked. The scope of violence against them is unknown and their treatment is often hampered by unique social and institutional impediments. This article reviews the need for improved recognition and protection of such patients and the associated obstacles, while presenting information on the experience, knowledge and attitudes of physicians in Israel regarding the maltreatment of prisoners and detainees., Methods: We sent a questionnaire to physicians and medical students in Israel to enquire about their knowledge concerning examination and treatment of persons under police custody who appear to be victims of violence as well as their attitude concerning torture., Results: We received answers from 443 physicians and 114 medical students. Most physicians would correctly examine and document the injuries, but only 59% would report their suspicions of violence to the Ministry of Health. Though 60% of physicians objected in principle to the use of torture, a majority endorsed the use of physical and psychological pressure during interrogation. Moreover, 29% of physicians thought it is permissible for physicians to examine detainees and verify their health so that torture can begin or continue., Discussion: Our study shows that there is a need for development and implementation of treatment and reporting protocols as well as educational programs concerning the ethical and legal requirements of physicians towards detainees and prisoners in Israel. Limitations of our study are discussed.

There is little information available on the mental health effects of exposure to shared community violence such as the August 2014 violence that occurred in Ferguson, Missouri. This study sought to examine the relationship between proximity to community violence and mental health in both community members and police officers. We recruited 565 adults (community, n = 304, and police, n = 261) exposed to the violence in Ferguson to complete measures of proximity to violence, posttraumatic stress, depression, and anger. Using structural equation modeling, we assessed aspects of proximity to violence-connectedness, direct exposure, fear from exposure, media exposure, reactions to media, and life interruption-as correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depression, and anger. The final model yielded (n = 432), χ(2) (d = 12) = 7.4, p = .830; comparative fit index = 1.0, root mean square error of approximation = 0 [0, .04]. All aspects of proximity except direct exposure were associated with mental health outcomes. There was no moderation as a function of community versus police. Race moderated the relationship between life interruptions and negative outcomes; interruption was related to distress for White, but not Black community members. Based on group comparisons, community members reported more symptoms of PTSD and depression than law enforcement (ηp (2) = .06 and .02, respectively). Black community members reported more PTSD and depression than White community members (ηp (2) = .05 and .02, respectively). Overall, distress was high, and mental health interventions are likely indicated for some individuals exposed to the Ferguson events., (Copyright © 2016 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.)

Background: Training law enforcement officers (LEOs) to administer naloxone to opioid overdose victims is increasingly part of comprehensive efforts to reduce opioid overdose deaths. Such efforts could yield positive interactions between LEOs and community members and might ultimately help lower overdose death rates., Methods: We evaluated a pilot LEO naloxone program by (1) assessing opioid overdose knowledge and attitudes (competency in responding, concerns about naloxone administration, and attitudes towards overdose victims) before and after a 30min training on overdose and naloxone administration, and (2) conducting qualitative interviews with LEOs who used naloxone to respond to overdose emergencies after the training., Results: Eighty-one LEOs provided pre- and post-training data. Nearly all (89%) had responded to an overdose while serving as an LEO. Statistically significant increases were observed in nearly all items measuring opioid overdose knowledge (p's=0.04 to <0.0001). Opioid overdose competencies (p<0.001) and concerns about naloxone administration (p<0.001) significantly improved after the training, while there was no change in attitudes towards overdose victims (p=0.90). LEOs administered naloxone 11 times; nine victims survived and three of the nine surviving victims made at least one visit to substance abuse treatment as a result of a LEO-provided referral. Qualitative data suggest that LEOs had generally positive experiences when they employed the skills from the training., Conclusions: Training LEOs in naloxone administration can increase knowledge and confidence in managing opioid overdose emergencies. Perhaps most importantly, training LEOs to respond to opioid overdose emergencies may have positive effects for LEOs and overdose victims., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Social justice issues remain some of the most pressing problems in the United States. One aspect of social justice involves the differential treatment of demographic groups in the criminal justice system. While data consistently show that Blacks and Hispanics are often treated differently than Whites, one understudied aspect of these disparities is how police officers' assessments of suspects' size affects their decisions. Using over 3 million cases from the New York Police Department (NYPD) Stop, Question, and Frisk (SQF) Database, 2006-2013, this study is the first to explore suspects' race, perceived size, and police treatment. Results indicate that tall and heavy black and Hispanic men are at the greatest risk for frisk or search. Tall and heavy suspects are at increased risk for experiencing police force, with black and Hispanic men being more likely to experience force than white men across size categories.

This paper probes the relationship between changes in the risk of apprehension for speeding in Norway and changes in the amount of speeding. The paper is based on a game-theoretic model of how the rate of violations and the amount of enforcement is determined by the interaction between drivers and the police. This model makes predictions both about how drivers will adapt to changes in the amount of enforcement (the more enforcement, the less violations) as well as how the police will adapt to changes in the rate of violations (the less violations, the less enforcement). The paper attempts to test the game-theoretic model empirically. Testing the model rigorously is difficult, mainly because some of the relevant variables are not reliably measured and are endogenous. Two models were developed: one to identify sources of changes in the rate of violations, one to identify sources of changes in the amount of enforcement. The predictions of the game-theoretic model were supported, although the results were not statistically significant in the model of how the police adapt enforcement to changes in the rate of violations., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To examine the co-occurrence of alcohol misuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and potential sources of coping (e.g., spirituality/religion) and clinically relevant variables among first responders (e.g., firefighters, law enforcement corrections officers, paramedics). Method: We assessed rates of independent and co-occurring alcohol misuse and PTSD among a national online sample of 320 first responders as well as the prevalence and salience of S/R, guilt, shame, moral injury, aspects of S/R, and treatment interest. Results: In our sample, 46.88% (n = 150) met criteria for comorbid alcohol misuse and probable PTSD and individuals with these comorbid conditions reported significantly greater negative religious coping, moral injury, and shame than all other diagnostic groups (i.e., independent alcohol misuse, independent PTSD, and neither). Correlations also revealed significant relationships between alcohol misuse and PTSD symptomatology with positive and negative religious coping, moral injury, shame, guilt, interest in treatment, and interest in spiritually integrated treatment. Conclusions: Findings highlight the high rates of independent and co-occurring alcohol misuse and PTSD among first responders as well as the salience of S/R in this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Police and public safety psychology (hereafter PPSP) is recognized by the American Psychological Association (APA) as a specialty in professional psychology (American Psychological Association in Recognized specialties, subspecialties, and proficiencies in professional psychology, 2024). PPSP is concerned with assisting law enforcement and other public safety personnel and agencies in carrying out their missions and societal functions with effectiveness, safety, health, and conformity to laws and ethics. It consists of the application of the science and profession of psychology to the primary domains of practice of PPSP (Council of Organizations in Police Psychology in Petition for renewal of recognition of police and public safety psychology as a specialty in professional psychology, 2019). This paper describes the results of efforts to organize and define the specialty and its scope of practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Violence against police is a reality for many officers. Despite growing concerns over the rise in violence against police and the serious individual and societal repercussions associated with it, a comprehensive overview of the psychological and physical consequences of verbal and physical violence against police remains elusive. By performing a scoping review (n = 21) of studies and reports identified via database searches (Web of Science and Google Scholar), reference mining, and purposive sampling, and published between 2010 and 2023, this article is the first of its kind to map psychological and physical consequences of violence against police, as well as the risk and protective factors that respectively increase and decrease adverse consequences. Results indicate that officers experience primary victimization by a range of different adverse consequences, but also deal with secondary victimization. The literature has come to a standstill due to lack of (recent) studies and a lack of diversity on how consequences of violence against police are studied. We argue that this lack of academic attention might be influenced by predominant societal perspectives and officers' perceived victim status, and discuss the implications for police, policymakers, and research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Racial justice movements sparked by police killings of Black and Brown persons have led to a reassessment of the role of policing in America. This has promoted important conversations about how best to improve public safety and design law enforcement practices that are equitable and just across communities. A component of this conversation is addressing stress and trauma faced by police as a routine part of their duties, as it can affect the quality of policing. Job-related stress and trauma experienced by police officers are an international phenomenon, yet underexplored areas in social work research and practice. Police officers experience high levels of stress from routine exposure to traumatic situations, leading to high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use, and depression. Officers who are actively experiencing symptoms of stress and trauma are more likely to engage in misconduct, including the unnecessary use of force. This study explores the stress and trauma-related experiences of police officers. We conducted one-on-one, semi-structured interviews with 23 officers from an urban police department in St Louis, Missouri. Analysis of interviews addressed three areas: (1) stress and trauma experiences associated with police work, (2) negative effects of stress and trauma on officers, and (3) factors impacting officer access to treatment. We conclude that social work can contribute to improved policing outcomes by helping officers address their job-related stress and trauma through engaged research and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly contributed to stress among people worldwide, with first responders being disproportionately burdened. The enduring impacts and strategies to prevent burnout and recover from the pandemic among policing personnel remain unclear to date. Two-hundred ninety-seven participants from a large US metropolitan police department completed surveys, and 25 also participated in interviews. Results indicated that COVID-19 was an inflated stressor for police, primarily through staffing shortages, limited resources, and rapidly changing policies. Civilian (and command) experiences differed considerably from sworn personnel. Policing-specific stress and burnout significantly impacted mental and physical health outcomes. Rapidly changing policies extending beyond the COVID-19 pandemic were stressful but were not identified as the largest source of stress for many interviewed individuals. Many participants stated that ongoing negative scrutiny and social movements specific to anti-Black racism in policing were more stressful. This study highlights the need for wellness initiatives in police agencies as society moves beyond the pandemic. Navigating the post-pandemic world is key for bridging police-community divides moving forward. With this knowledge, one can better support all personnel within an agency, with ripple effects on community member safety and health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: While effective apprehensions of non-compliant suspects are central to public safety, the minimal force needed to transition a suspect from standing to the ground, vital for apprehension success, has not been established. OBJECTIVE: To examine the technical-tactical behaviors of general duty police officers during simulated apprehensions and quantify the minimum force required to destabilize non-compliant suspects. METHODS: Task simulations conducted with 91 officers were analyzed to identify common grappling movements, strikes, control tactics, and changes in body posture. A separate assessment of 55 male officers aimed to determine the minimum force required for destabilization in five body regions (wrist, forearm, shoulder, mid-chest, and mid-back). Data are presented as mean±standard deviation. RESULTS: On average, apprehensions took 7.3±3.2 seconds. While all officers used grappling movements (100%) and the majority employed control tactics (75%), strikes were seldom used (4%). Apprehensions typically began with a two-handed pull (97%; Contact Phase), 55% then attempted an arm bar takedown, followed by a two-handed cross-body pull (68%; Transition/Control Phase), and a two-handed push to the ground (19%; Ground Phase). All officers began in the upright posture, with most shifting to squat (75%), kneel (58%), or bent (45%) postures to complete the apprehension. The minimum force required to disrupt balance differed across body regions (wrist: 54±12 kg; forearm: 49±12 kg; shoulder: 42±10 kg; mid-chest: 44±11 kg; mid-back: 30±7 kg, all P < 0.05), except between the shoulder and chest (P = 0.19). CONCLUSION: These findings provide insights that can enhance the design and accuracy of future apprehension evaluations and inform the optimization of law enforcement physical employment standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. Musculoskeletal (MSK) complaints are prevalent in law enforcement officers (LEOs), but research that examines their risk factors is limited. This study aimed to identify the self-reported MSK complaint prevalence and perceived causes in LEOs. Methods. The Nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire was used to identify the 12-month and 7-day prevalence of MSK 'trouble' (ache, pain, discomfort) for nine body sites. The perceived cause, participant characteristics and occupational role were reported. Body fat percentage was measured using bioelectrical impedance. Results. Complete submissions of 186 questionnaires were received (80% male, median age 40.6 years, interquartile range 10.1). Eighty-six per cent of officers reported having an MSK complaint in the last 12 months, where lower back, shoulder and neck complaint prevalence was 59.1, 48.4 and 42.5%, respectively. The occupational role was associated with the site and presence of complaints (p < 0.05), where armed officers presented with more shoulder, lower back and hip/thigh complaints. Age, sex and body fat did not impact complaint prevalence. Participants mainly attributed their complaints to occupation equipment or to sport and exercise. Conclusion. MSK complaints were highly prevalent in this cohort, particularly armed officers. Further research is required to establish the impact of these complaints and how they can be mitigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Law enforcement officers (LEOs) use protective equipment to ensure safety. However, equipment carriage has been shown to impair movement quality and may increase the risk of musculoskeletal injury. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the influence of equipment load carriage on functional movement as measured by the Functional Movement Screen (FMS). It was hypothesised that FMS scores would be negatively impacted by equipment carriage. A counterbalanced cross-over study was utilised and a convenience sample of 31 males and one female active-duty LEOs were included. Participants completed the FMS under two conditions: with and without equipment. Significant median decreases in the equipment condition were observed for hurdle step, shoulder mobility, and rotary stability (p <.01), and deep squat and dominant limb active straight leg raise (ASLR) (p <.05). The non-dominant limb ASLR and trunk stability push-up were similar between conditions (p >.05). Load carriage appears to impair functional movement among LEOs. Practitioner summary: Equipment carriage interferes with functional movement and neither of the two load carriage systems tested were superior to the other. When choosing between duty belt verses duty belt and outer carrier vest carriage, LEO preference, body type, and acclimation to a given carriage type should be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Fatal opioid overdoses continue to break historical records. Stigma toward people with opioid use disorder (OUD) can negatively impact treatment access, retention, and recovery. Attitudes and beliefs of police officers can profoundly shape key discretionary decisions. Therefore, we examined police officer views indicating stigma toward those with OUD. Objectives We administered an online survey to select Illinois police departments using a stratified random sampling strategy with a final sample of 248 officers from 27 police departments. We asked officers questions measuring stigmatizing attitudes toward people with OUD including distrust, blame, shame, and fear. We found officers held somewhat stigmatizing views with a mean score of 4.0 on a scale of 1 (least stigmatic) to 6 (most stigmatic). Results Regression results showed certain officer characteristics were associated with more stigmatizing attitudes of blaming and distrust of those with OUD, including gender, education, race, years in policing, and department size. Conclusions/Importance Since most officers in the sample held at least some stigmatizing views toward people with OUD, this may impede the feasibility and acceptability of criminal justice interventions meant to improve behavioral health, such as police deflection programs that link people who use drugs to treatment in lieu of arrest. Departments should offer officer training and education on substance use disorders, treatment for addiction, and the potential for a person's recovery. Training should allow officers to hear directly from, or learn about, personal experiences of people who use drugs and have been in recovery, as this type of interaction has been shown to reduce stigma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Persons working in tactical occupations are often exposed to high-stress situations. If this stress is to be measured, an understanding of the stress outcomes used in these occupations is needed. The aim of this review was to capture and critically appraise research investigating subjective and objective outcome measures of physiological stress in tactical occupations. Several literature databases (PubMed, EMBASE, EBsco) were searched using key search words and terms. Studies meeting inclusion criteria were critically evaluated and scored by two authors using the Joanne Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tool. Of 17,171 articles, 42 studies were retained. The Cohen's Kappa agreement between authors was 0.829 with a mean JBI Score of included studies of 8.1/9 ± 0.37 points. Multiple subjective and objective measures were assessed during a variety of high-stress tasks and environments across different occupations, including police officers, emergency service personnel, firefighters, and soldiers in the military. Common objective outcomes measures were heart rate, cortisol, and body temperature, and subjective measures were ratings of perceived exertion, and the Self Trait Anxiety Inventory. Often used in combination (i.e., subjective and objective), these outcome measures can be used to monitor stressors faced by tactical personnel undergoing on-the-job training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dawes, JJ, Lopes dos Santos, M, Kornhauser, C, Holmes, RJ, Alvar, BA, Lockie, RG, and Orr, RM. Longitudinal changes in health and fitness measures among state patrol officers by sex. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 881–886, 2023—Research suggests that police officers lose fitness as a result of their policing vocation with occupational factors like stress, shift work, poor sleep, and poor diet all contributors to this loss The purpose of this research was to measure changes in fitness test scores of qualified police officers over a 5-year period. Archived fitness data for 523 state patrol officers (n = 494 men; 29 women) from one agency were used for this analysis. These tests included 60-second sit-up [SU] and push-up [PU] scores (muscular endurance), vertical jump height [VJ] (lower-body power), and 20-m multistage fitness test (aerobic capacity). A series of paired-samples t-tests and effect size calculations were used to investigate mean differences in fitness tests score at the beginning and end of a 5-year period. The paired-samples t test showed significant tests score decreases among male officers over the 5-year period in VJ, PU, and V̇ o 2max,, with no differences observed in SU performance. Small effect sizes were observed in both VJ (g = −0.20) and PU (g = −0.27) with a trivial effect size observed in changes to V̇ o 2max (g = −0.14). In contrast, significant improvements in performance were observed in SU performance among female officers, with a small effect size (g = 0.38). No other significant differences were found in female measures. Whether at an organizational or individual level, annual fitness assessments for police officers can serve to educate and motivate officers regarding their personal fitness and potentially slow the negative impact of aging on health, fitness, and performance in these populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people in the United States continue to face dire rates of police violence and harassment. However, little research has examined this phenomenon using large-scale nationwide data. The current study utilized data from the United States Transgender Survey to examine the prevalence and correlates of police interaction, harassment, and violence among TGD people in the United States. Police harassment and violence types examined included reported incidences of (a) officers using the wrong pronouns, (b) officers asking about an individual's transition, (c) verbal harassment, (d) physical attack, (e) forcing sex to avoid arrest, and (f) unwanted sexual contact from an officer. Results from a weighted sample of 22,456 TGD people revealed that 40.3% reported having interacted with the police in the past year. Among those who interacted with the police in the past year, 45.7% reported experiencing at least one incident of police verbal harassment and 6.1% reported at least one incidence of police physical/sexual violence in the past year. Engaging in sex work was one of the most consistent predictors of police interaction, harassment, and violence. Notably, sex workers were approximately 11 times more likely to report being forced to engage in sex with the police to avoid arrest when compared to non-sex workers. Overall, people of color also reported significantly higher rates of police harassment and violence compared to their White counterparts. Additional correlates included income, educational attainment, and participation in other illegal work. Taken together, the findings of the current study highlight the urgent need for additional examination, intervention, and advocacy to eliminate police harassment and violence against members of the TGD community in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working with extreme mood states is a regular challenge for law enforcement officers. In their encounters during police actions, they very often face manifestations of anger and aggression, as well as vulnerable states such as ones involving fear, helplessness, or humiliation. In this study, we investigated whether officers could reliably identify emotional states in the persons they encountered, using the Schema Therapy concept of "schema modes." Although the mode concept has been extensively validated in the field of forensic mental health, this is its first application to police work. Twenty-seven police officers working for two different German police headquarters were asked to report about a recent operation involving a person showing intense emotional states. After receiving a short training in using the iModes, cards that facilitate working with modes, they retrospectively rated the presence and intensity of the schema modes of the persons whom they encountered. Two experts in Schema Therapy independently rated the same scenarios, using the Mode Observation Scale (MOS). Intraclass correlations showed moderate to excellent levels of agreement between the officers' and experts' mode-ratings. Modes involving anger (70%), aggression (70%), indirect hostility (44%), and arrogance/grandiosity (41%) were the most prevalent, while modes involving vulnerable emotions were less common. It can be concluded that police officers can reliably assess different modes in encountered persons, even without extensive training. This initial study suggests that the mode concept has applicability to police work and merits additional study for its potential for de-escalation and conflict management in police contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Health and wellness programs can be implemented at police departments. Little research has detailed the characteristics of officers within these programs. OBJECTIVE: To analyse the health and fitness data of officers involved in a health and wellness program from 2018–2020, and to profile the officers involved relative to population norms. METHODS: Analysis was conducted on archival data from 633 officers (523 males, 110 females) who participated in a health and wellness program from a large city police department. Data included: body mass; body fat percentage; blood pressure (BP); estimated maximal aerobic capacity; sit-and-reach; push-ups; vertical jump; grip strength; sit-ups; bench press ratio. Data were grouped by year (2018, 2019, 2020), and a univariate ANCOVA with Bonferroni post hoc adjustment determined any significant between-group differences. Individual officer data were also compared to population norms. RESULTS: The 2020 group had higher systolic BP compared to both other groups, and superior sit-and-reach and grip strength compared to the 2018 group (p < 0.05). Compared to population norms across the 3 years, 74–86% of officers had BP elevated above normal levels. Depending on the fitness component measured most officers (69–98%) were categorised as average or better. CONCLUSIONS: There were few differences between the year groups, although the 2020 officers did have superior sit-and-reach and grip strength. The higher systolic BP from the 2020 group may be indicative of the challenges of the year (pandemic, civil unrest). Officers generally had good profiles relative to population norms. The wellness program appeared to benefit the well-being of officers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Theory of Planned Behavior posits that behaviors are predicted by one's intention to perform them; intention is driven by attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. We used this theory to predict Crisis Intervention Team (CIT)-trained and non-CIT officers' intention to facilitate referral of persons with suspected mental illnesses to mental health services. CIT-trained (n = 251) and non-CIT (n = 335) officers from six law enforcement agencies participated. CIT-trained officers had significantly greater scores on all constructs. Theory constructs fit the data well, and fit did not differ meaningfully between the two groups. Direct and indirect predictors together accounted for 28% and 21%, respectively, of variance in behavioral intention. Attitude was the strongest predictor. Intentions to facilitate mental health referrals may be driven by the same factors among CIT-trained and non-CIT officers, but CIT officers, even at a median of 22 months after training, have significantly higher scores on those factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]