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Internationalization agenda, especially the Erasmus framework, has become a significant process affecting the Turkish higher education. Erasmus, as being the most influential and preferred mobility scheme, has attracted significant attention and witnessed increasing number of students in years. There are various studies on the outcomes of the Erasmus program in terms of social, cultural, and academic gains of students as well as associated challenges and influence of the Bologna Process on the Turkish higher education outlook. However, there are less visited concepts in terms of challenges that need further attention. This paper addresses these less visited subjects such as project management/implementation issues (diversity, funding, and outcomes), politics of difference, and consumerist approaches. The findings suggest that these issues may complicate program implementations and run the risk of hindering general program targets, leading to a paradoxical outlook such a becoming exclusive to certain group of students, emphasizing difference rather than mutual understanding, seeing the experience as a to-do list item. So, the tension between various issues such as consumerist approaches, politics of difference and project implementation issues and general program targets and outcomes must be acknowledged towards emphasizing the critical role of appropriate student advising and expectation management as well as development of flexible and diverse evaluation-placement methods for efficient and positive program implementation.

This article investigates the perceptions of mainstream Turks in Turkey towardsTurkish (re)migrants from West European countries. It seeks to gain insight intothemes and issues emerging in the cultural contact of (re)migrants with Turksback in Turkey and to elucidate the dimensions of the perceivedstigmatization of Turkish (re)migrants. By using an original survey instrument,the items of which were generated based on the semi-structured interviewswith 53 informants, data were collected from 606 Turkish informants. Basedon the survey results, a model was developed and validated. The results ofthe study are discussed within the frameworks of intergroup relations andsocial categorization of the social identity approach.

We studied the psychological and socio-cultural adaptation processes of Syrian refugees in Turkey using semi-structured, face-to-face, in-depth interviews among 15 participants. The study explored the themes and issues emerging in the psychological and socio-cultural adaptation processes such as life-satisfaction, contact with the host community and future plans of Syrian adults. Berry’s acculturation model (1997) is used to form the theoretical basis of this research. Our findings revealed that psychological and socio-cultural adaptation of Syrian refugees are strongly influenced by economic concerns, pre-migration expectations, religion and perceptions of Turkish natives’ expectations/ attitudes towards Syrians. From the perspective of the informants, economic concerns and uncertainty regarding duration of stay have a negative impact on refugees’ acculturation, leading to delayed psychological and socio-cultural adaptation. Positive perceptions of Turkish natives’ expectations/ attitudes towards Syrians are perceived to increase motivation to seek social support, which promotes well-being and life satisfaction in Turkey. Yet, negative perceptions such as prejudice and discrimination, may pose a risk for psychological health and low socio-cultural adaptation. One major finding of the paper is the two-fold impact of religion on Syrian refugees: Religion can be considered a binding/ equalizing function subsuming refugee and native groups under a superordinate identity. Nonetheless, it also appears to generate social distance when perceived as a threat to the secular national identity. The findings of this research can be used to minimize factors that undermine favorable acculturation outcomes and promote factors that facilitate high levels of psychological and socio-cultural adaptation.

European discourse on linguistic minorities reflect the construction of inter-ethnic boundaries between national (such as Dutch or French), indigenous minorities (such as Basque, Catalan or Frisian), and immigrant minorities (Arabic, Berber or Turkish). In the European public discourse on immigrant minority groups, two major characteristics emerge: immigrant minority groups are often referred to as foreigners (étrangers, Ausländer) and as being in need of integration. It is common practice to refer to immigrant minority groups in terms of non-national residents and to their languages in terms of non-territorial, non-regional, non-indigenous, or non-European languages. This conceptual exclusion rather than inclusion in the European public discourse derives from a restrictive interpretation of the notions of citizenship and nationality. Based on the empirical evidence derived from Language Rich Europe project, a phenomenological perspective on ethnic minorities and inter-ethnic boundary construction will be presented in this paper.

This study investigated the family language policy of second-generation Turkish immigrant families in the Netherlands by exploring their language ideologies, practices, and management strategies. Using an ethnographic approach, data were collected through a set of observations and interviews with 20 families. Transcriptions of interviews and memos of observations were coded to derive the major strategies employed by parents regarding home language use. The findings show that, although Turkish maintenance is a very important part of the linguistic ideologies of the families studied, there is great diversity and complexity in their language practices and management strategies. All of the families focus their language planning activities around the educational achievement of their children. Therefore, the recommendations of educational institutions are very important in their language practices.

This article explores return migration motivations of different generations of Turkish migrants returning from Germany, the Netherlands and France, using semi-structured face-to-face interviews among 48 informants. The study draws on a qualitative approach and inductive content analysis to get insight into how pre-return, migration and transnational experiences of Turkish migrants influence their decisions to return to Turkey. It was found that an ambition to return to Turkey already present when migrating from Turkey, perceived discrimination in Western Europe and a strong sense of belonging to Turkey play the most important role in return decisions.

In bilingualism studies, comparing the competence of mono- and bilingual speakers is common, but it comes with certain limitations. In immigration contexts, many studies concentrate on the skills of immigrant pupils in the mainstream language. In order to account for educational underachievement of minority children, gaps in their language development are often documented by comparing mainstream pupils with immigrant children. Competence in the first language (L1), on the other hand, receives very little attention, despite the fact that it is often assumed that L1 competence has an impact on second language acquisition. Here, we present the findings of an empirical study that compared bilingual Turkish immigrant children ( n = 30) in the Netherlands with monolingual Turkish peers ( n = 30) in Turkey. Contrary to most other such studies, we focus on the development of socio-pragmatic skills. The evidence shows that, from the viewpoint of monolingual conventions, the immigrant children lag behind in their command of these skills. Also after controlling for socioeconomic status, bilingual Turkish immigrant children display much lower knowledge of the socio-pragmatic skills than monolingual Turkish children. The causes of this difference can be attributed to the limited Turkish input in the immigration context.

We studied the consequences of Turkish return migration in the reconstruction of 'migrant' identities into 'almanci' identities (literally: German-like; a pejorative term denoting Turkish returnees with a German-like identity) using semi-structured, oral interviews among 48 informants. The study uses a qualitative approach and inductive content analysis to get insight into the factors influencing (re) adaptation of Turkish return migrants. On the basis of informants' self-reports, we found that perceived discrimination, cultural distance with mainstream Turks and children-related issues experienced after return emerged as major themes in the returnee's narratives. The research revealed that re-adaptation difficulties varied substantially across generations and the socioeconomic status of the informants. The migration experiences and the acculturation orientations of the migrants in the countries of immigration played essential roles for a successful re-adaptation period. The results are discussed within the framework of two major models, Berry's acculturation model and Sussman's cultural identity model. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In talking about family language policy in the Turkish immigration context in the Netherlands, teachers emerged as the key actors in shaping parental language choices and practices. Previous research has shown that teachers take a central role in the implementation of school language policy but there is not much research on the influence of mainstream teachers on language practices of minority parents in the home context. In this paper, we will combine the evidence derived from observations on 20 families, interviews with 35 parents and with 5 classroom teachers in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. Findings show that there is a serious degree of mismatch between parental aspirations regarding teachers' professional advice for parents and teacher expectations regarding parental role in the schooling of immigrant children and the use of home language. The interaction between parental beliefs and teachers' opinions show diverging attitudes towards the value of heritage language, schooling and parental participation.

0000-0001-9610-5496 WOS: 000408448300002 Lower reading and mathematics performance of Turkish immigrant students as compared to mainstream European students could reflect differential learning outcomes, differential socioeconomic backgrounds of the groups, differential mainstream language proficiency, and/or test bias. Using PISA reading and mathematics scores of these groups, we examined the role of bias and various measures related to immigrant integration policies of the host societies. Results of a multilevel analysis of reading and mathematics tests demonstrated that at individual level, students with higher scores on an index of economic, social, and cultural status obtained higher achievement scores. At country level, MIPEX scores of education and the human development index of participating countries could predict differences in reading results but not in mathematics. After correction for background characteristics, effect sizes showed a difference of .65 SD (down from a value of .96 before correction) for reading and .58 SD (down from .78) for mathematics. However, a similar correction for background variables increased the score differences between Turkish immigrants and mainstreamers. Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK) [2219] This paper is a part of a research project supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) with program no. 2219. Any opinions expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the TUBITAK.

In spite of the challenges involved in the comparison of policies and practices for multi/plurilingualism in different national or regional contexts, the comparative data presented in this study provide a rich source of cross-national insights.1 Leaving aside the degree of recognition of multi/plurilingualism, there are multi/plurilingual policies and practices in all 24 countries/regions surveyed, with many EU and CoE recommendations being followed. On the basis of both the comparative cross-national findings presented here, and the contextual detail provided by our researchers in the country profiles, we hope that policy-makers, practitioners and specialists working in the field will be able to identify good practice, which can subsequently serve as a basis for development and knowledge exchange. Below, we summarise the key findings for each of the language domains surveyed.Languages in official documents and databasesLegislation on national and R/M languages is provided in almost all countries/ regions, on foreign languages in 14 countries/regions, and on immigrant languages in only six countries/regions.Official language policy documents on the promotion of national and foreign languages are available in almost all countries/regions, on R/M languages in 18 countries/regions and on immigrant languages in only four countries/regions.The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) has been ratified by Parliament in 11 out of the 18 countries surveyed, and signed by governments in France and Italy. It has been neither signed nor ratified by Bulgaria, Estonia, Greece, Lithuania and Portugal.The largest numbers of officially offered R/M languages in education emerge in South-Eastern and Central European countries. In Western Europe, Italy and France are the clearest exceptions to this general rule, as they offer a wide variety of languages. The concepts of "regional" or "minority" languages are not specified in the ECRML but immigrant languages are explicitly excluded from it. In Western European countries, immigrant languages often have a more prominent appearance than R/M languages but enjoy less recognition, protection and/or promotion.Most countries/regions are familiar with official language data collection mechanisms and most of them address three types of languages: national languages, R/M languages and immigrant languages. Only four out of 24 countries/regions have no language data mechanisms at all: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Greece and the Netherlands. Portugal only collects data on the national language.There is also variation in the major language question(s) asked in official nation/region-wide language data collection mechanisms. Over half of the countries/regions surveyed ask a home-language question, while others ask about the main language and/or the mother tongue.Languages in pre-primary educationMany EU and CoE documents underline the importance of early language learning. At pre-primary level, 14 of the 24 countries/regions surveyed provide additional support in the national language for all children funded by the state. The Netherlands and Ukraine devote the most time to this.Foreign-language provision at this level is offered by nine countries/regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Basque Country, Bulgaria, Catalonia, Estonia, Spain and Ukraine, although it may be partly or fully funded by parents/ guardians. English, French and German are the most common languages offered.R/M languages are offered by 17 countries/regions, and are mainly funded by the state/region. In some countries there are minimum group size requirements to form a group. The widest variety of languages is offered in Austria, Hungary, Italy, Romania and Ukraine.Provision in immigrant languages in pre-primary education is not yet very common. However, in spite of the difficulties involved in identifying appropriate teachers and learning materials, three countries (Denmark, Spain and Switzerland) do offer support to very young children for the maintenance and development of their languages and cultures of origin. …

WOS: 000383408500007 The interdependence between the first and second language of bilingual immigrant children has not received sufficient attention in research. Most studies concentrate on mainstream language skills of immigrant pupils. In some studies, the gaps in the language development of immigrant children are documented by comparing mainstream pupils with immigrant children. The competence in the first language receives very little attention. In order to show the role of first language competence in second-language acquisition and lower school achievement, we present the findings of our empirical study by comparing bilingual Turkish immigrant children (n=30, mean age=67.27 months) in the Netherlands and monolingual Turkish speakers (n=30, mean age=66.97 months) in Turkey. The evidence presented in this paper shows that compared to monolingual Turkish speakers, Turkish immigrant children lag behind in their first language cognitive concepts, lexical, syntactic, and textual skills. Mothers' education level turns out to be an important factor in explaining the performance differences of immigrant children. This would have an effect on their concept and cognitive development as well as on their second-language acquisition.

In this study, data and discourses on immigrant minority groups and languages other than Dutch at home and at school are presented in order to contextualise the status of Turkish and Moroccan communities and their languages in the Netherland. Patterns of language use, choice and attitudes of Turkish (n = 63) and Moroccan (n = 64) youngsters in the Netherlands are documented and discussed. The findings of this study show that pride in one's socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds is not coupled with maintenance of the community language. Arabic and Berber informants report high attachment to their cultural backgrounds but their actual community language use is very restricted compared to their Dutch language use. They clearly shift to Dutch in most domains of language use. Turkish youngsters, on the other hand, show strong language maintenance patterns and their socio-cultural orientation is congruent with their language behaviour. While Moroccan youngsters identify more strongly with Islamic practices, ...

ARIKAN, SERKAN/0000-0001-9610-5496; van de Vijver, Fons/0000-0003-0220-2485; Meiring, Deon/0000-0003-3458-2064; Yagmur, Kutlay/0000-0002-0555-4251 WOS: 000378924000006 Large-scale studies, such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), provide data to understand cross-national differences and similarities. In this study, we aimed to identify factors predicting mathematics achievement of Turkish students by comparing to Australian students. First, construct equivalence and item bias were evaluated to check the comparability. Second, factors predicting mathematics achievement of Turkish and Australian students were identified. Then, propensity score matching on background variables was conducted to identify the remaining achievement differences. Results indicated that mathematics skills were free of construct bias in these groups. After removal of some biased items, we obtained an item bias free booklet. Additionally, students' self-confidence and educational resources at home were significant predictors of achievement. Propensity score analysis indicated that educational resources and to a somewhat lesser extent self-confidence were effective in explaining achievement differences between these two countries. Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK)Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Arastirma Kurumu (TUBITAK) [2219] This paper is a part of a research project supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) with program no. 2219. Any opinions expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the TUBITAK.

This paper deals with the differences between language policy at the European level and de facto practices at the national level. The findings are derived from the Language Rich Europe project, which is financed by the British Council and the European Commission to promote knowledge sharing about good policy and practice in language learning and teaching across Europe. The project evolved as a result of (1) the need to exchange effective practices in enhancing intercultural dialogue and social inclusion through language learning and teaching; (2) the need for greater European cooperation on improving language policies and practices; and (3) the lack of awareness of the Council of Europe and the European Commission recommendations regarding language policies and practices for promoting language learning and linguistic diversity and the member states’ performance against these recommendations. Making use of a large network of experts and partners from 24 different countries and regions, we have conducted an analysis of language policies and practices in Europe, comparing them to selected European Commission and Council of Europe recommendations. The project is co-financed by the European Commission as a part of its Lifelong Learning Programme, and is managed by the British Council with supervision from a steering group made up of partner organisations. Over 30 partners from across Europe are involved in the project, contributing both funding and expertise. The Babylon Centre for the Study of Superdiversity at Tilburg University led the research. The survey covers 15 EU member states: Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain and the United Kingdom, in addition to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland and Ukraine. In Spain additional research was conducted in Catalonia and the Basque Country. In the UK, research was conducted separately for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. In the Netherlands additional research was conducted in Friesland. The results are published as an official project report, Trends in Policies and Practices for Multilingualism in Europe, edited by Guus Extra and Kutlay Yagmur and published in 18 European national and regional languages as well as in Turkish and Arabic as major immigrant languages in Europe, in both book form (Cambridge University Press 2012) and as part of an interactive website: http://www.language-rich.eu/materials-media. Further, key recommendations for policy makers at the regional, country and European level were presented at the European Parliament in March 2013. Given the space limitations, only the findings related to ‘languages in official documents and databases’ and ‘languages in pre-primary, primary and secondary education’ are addressed in this paper.

The authors examined acculturation and language orientations among Turkish immigrants in Australia ( n = 283), France ( n = 266), Germany ( n = 265), and the Netherlands ( n = 271). They expected that the countries with the least pluralistic climate (France and Germany) would show the lowest level of sociocultural adjustment and the highest level of ethnic orientation and language use; the opposite was expected in Australia, as the country with the most pluralistic climate; and the Netherlands would have an intermediate position. The predictions were largely borne out. The language orientation measures yielded a (symbolic) language value factor and a (behavioral) language preference factor. In all countries Turkish identity was a positive predictor and mainstream identity a negative predictor of both the language value and preference factor. Mainstream and Turkish identity showed stronger negative correlations in the less pluralistic countries. It is concluded that immigrants showed the least maintenance and the most adjustment in Australia, which is the country with the least pressure to assimilate.

This study deals with the ethnolinguistic vitality of Altai and Kazakh as compared to Russian in the Russian Federation Republic of Altai. Data were gathered by document analysis, interviews with experts and by conducting a subjective ethnolinguistic vitality questionnaire. The data showed that Altai and Kazakh, as a consequence of a long-lasting Russification process, have become endangered languages in Altai. The dominance of Russian is ubiquitous and hardly hampered by a growing consciousness of ethnolinguistic identity and a number of language revitalisation activities. The ethnolinguistic vitality questionnaire corroborated the weak position of Kazakh as compared to Russian. For most of the indicators of ethnolinguistic vitality Kazakh informants reported significantly higher vitalities for the Russian out-group. Also a comparison at group level yielded a significant difference in favour of Russian. The Kazakh language in Altai can be considered a threatened language that will be more and more limited to the domestic domain and to speakers of the older generation. With respect to Altai a number of indicators of ethnolinguistic vitality showed higher vitalities for the Altai in-group. A comparison at group level did not show significant differences between Altai and Russian. This shows that the vitality of Altai in spite of the dominance of Russian is high and opens up possibilities for further growth.

This study examines the relationship between language maintenance patterns of Turkish immigrants in two different contexts and their ethnolinguistic vitality perceptions. It appears that mainstream society¿s attitudes towards the minority groups affects the language maintenance patterns and ethnolinguistic vitality perceptions of the ethnic minority. As documented in this study, Turkish immigrants in Australia have low ethnolinguistic vitality perceptions but their language maintenance is as strong as that of Turkish immigrants in Germany, where Turkish appears to have more vitality.

This study extends previous research on age-group vitality around the Pacific Rim by examining the perceptions of urban and rural respondents from Turkey, Canada and the nation of Georgia towards young, middle-aged, and older adults. As in prior research, middle-aged targets were accorded the highest vitality, and a new age-vitality profile was associated with Georgian rural informants. Some urban-rural differences in vitality ratings emerged, and Canadians rated the vitality of older people highest. Across the three countries, Georgian respondents rated young vitality the highest and older adult vitality the lowest. The findings are discussed in terms of dimensions of social change.

In this paper, acculturation and language orientations among Turkish speakers in Australia (n = 283) are discussed. Compared to West European countries, the Turkish community in Australia is much smaller. Given the prevalent pluralism ideology in Australia, a high level of sociocultural adjustment and a high level of ethnic orientation and language use were expected in Australia. The predictions were largely borne out. Turkish speakers have positive attitudes towards their mother tongue and towards English. However, there were large differences between the generations regarding language, use, choice and dominance. Turkish speakers show high levels of integration into the mainstream society. Language shift observed among second and third generations requires further reflection.

The focus of this paper is on the relationships between Turkish speakers’ ethnolinguistic vitality (EV) perceptions and their language maintenance (LM), language use, and choice patterns. The theoretical framework of the study is based on Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor's (1977) EV theory. In line with the model, a subjective EV vitality questionnaire, a Language Use–Choice Questionnaire, and a language rating scale have been applied to 25 Dutch-born Turkish and 64 Turkish-born immigrants in the Netherlands. Subjective EV questionnaire was administered to 104 Dutch informants. The findings of this study contribute further evidence into the role of education for LM and shift. Birth country turns out to be a significant factor for Dutch language skills of Turkish immigrants. While both the Dutch speakers and Turkish immigrants agree upon the vitality of the Dutch, there is significant difference concerning the Turkish vitality ratings. Turkish immigrants seem to compensate for their lower vitality in th...

This paper presents the findings of research investigating first-language attrition of Turkish speakers in Australia and the role of subjective ethnolinguistic vitality perceptions in that process. It examines the relationship between societal factors and individuals' perception of the language contact situation as reflected in their speech behaviour. For the linguistic dimension of the study, a number of lexical and syntactic tests along with self-rating scales were administered to 40 Turkish-Australians in Sydney and 40 reference-group informants in Turkey. For the social psychological dimension of the study, data were gathered by utilising the concept of ethnolinguistic vitality and its accompanying instrument, the subjective vitality questionnaire (SVQ). The SVQ data indicate low vitality perceptions among Turkish immigrants. Also, by means of a language use-choice questionnaire (LUCQ), data were elicited on language use and attitudes of the informants. The comparative results between Turkish immigran...

We examined Differential Item Functioning (DIF) and the size of cross-cultural performance differences in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 mathematics data before and after application of propensity score matching. The mathematics performance of Indonesian, Turkish, Australian, and Dutch students on released items was compared. Matching variables were gender, an index of economic, social and cultural status, and opportunity to learn, in exact, nearest neighbor, and optimal matching. Logistic regression and structural equation modeling were used to identify DIF. If propensity scores were used in the DIF analyses as performance predictors, much less DIF was found than in the original data; similarly, when in tests of country differences in mathematics performance, propensity scores were used as covariates, effect sizes of tests of country differences were reduced substantially. We concluded that propensity scoring provided us with a new tool to better control sources of DIF and country differences in PISA mathematics performance.