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Background: A range of factors may impact whether children access speech-language pathology (SLP) services, beyond their communication difficulties. For instance, co-occurring psychosocial difficulties may amplify children's observable difficulties, leading to greater access. It is important to examine such associations because they may reflect inherent differences between children with language difficulties who access services and those who do not, indicating under-servicing for subgroups in the community. Aims: The first aim was to examine possible differences in psychosocial difficulties between children with language difficulties who did versus did not access SLP services in the past 12 months. The second aim was to examine the unique contribution of psychosocial difficulties to service access, over and above language difficulties and other common predictors of service access. Methods & Procedures: Analyses were carried out on data gathered from 808 eleven-year-old children who took part in the Early Language in Victoria Study (ELVS). Children were categorized as having language difficulties based on their CELF-4 Core Language Score with a cut-point of > 1.25 SD below the mean. The primary outcome measure was access to SLP services in the past 12 months. Comparison and predictor variables included children's psychosocial difficulties, language skills, relevant demographic variables (gender, caregiver education) and prior SLP access. Outcomes & Results: A total of 42 children with language difficulties who had accessed SLP services had significantly greater psychosocial difficulties than those who had not (SDQ Total Difficulties, U = 53.00, z = -4.080, p < 0.001). Using binary logistic regression, a model examining child gender, caregiver education, psychosocial difficulties (internalizing and externalizing behaviours), language difficulties and prior SLP access (in earlier years) was significant ?[superscript 2] (8) = 137.285, p< 0.001, with increased externalizing difficulties (OR = 1.213, p < 0.001), increased communication difficulties (OR = 0.949, p < 0.001), and prior SLP access (OR = 7.430, p < 0.001) identified as unique predictors of service access. Conclusions & Implications: The results indicate that children with language difficulties who have comorbid psychosocial difficulties are more likely to access services than those who do not. Accordingly, children with language difficulties who access clinical services may require interdisciplinary support, while children without co-morbid psychosocial difficulties may be under-referred for SLP services.

Background: Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) are at higher risk of poorer mental health compared with children without DLD. There are, however, considerable individual differences that need to be interpreted, including the identification of protective factors. Aims: Pathways from the early language and communication environment (ELCE, 1-2 years) to internalizing (peer and emotional problems) and externalizing (conduct problems and hyperactivity) problems in middle childhood (11 years) were mapped using structural equation modelling. Specifically, the role of indirect pathways via social skills (friendships, play and prosociality) in childhood (7-9 years) was investigated. Methods & Procedures: Secondary analysis of existing data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) was undertaken. The study sample consisted of 6531 children (394 with DLD). Outcomes & Results: The pathways from the ELCE to internalizing and externalizing problems were similar for children with and without DLD. For both groups, a positive ELCE was associated with more competent social play and higher levels of prosociality in childhood, which in turn were associated with fewer externalizing problems in middle childhood. Furthermore, better friendships and higher levels of prosociality in childhood were both associated with fewer internalizing problems in middle childhood. Conclusions & Implications: A child's ELCE is potentially important not only for the development of language but also for social development. Furthermore, in the absence of adequate language ability, play and prosocial behaviours may allow children with DLD to deploy, practise and learn key social skills, thus protecting against externalizing problems. We suggest that consideration be given to play- and prosociality-based educational and therapeutic services for children with DLD.

Purpose: Children with poor language tend to have worse psychosocial outcomes compared to their typically developing peers. The most common explanations for such adversities focus on developmental psychological processes whereby poor language triggers psychosocial difficulties. Here, we investigate the possibility of shared biological effects by considering whether the same genetic variants, which are thought to influence language development, are also predictors of elevated psychosocial difficulties during childhood. Method: Using data from the U.K.-based Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, we created a number of multi-single-nucleotide polymorphism polygenic profile scores, based on language and reading candidate genes ("ATP2C2," "CMIP," "CNTNAP2," "DCDC2," "FOXP2," and "KIAA0319," 1,229 single-nucleotide polymorphisms) in a sample of 5,435 children. Results: A polygenic profile score for expressive language (8 years) that was created in a discovery sample (n = 2,718) predicted not only expressive language (8 years) but also peer problems (11 years) in a replication sample (n = 2,717). Conclusions: These findings provide a proof of concept for the use of such a polygenic approach in child language research when larger data sets become available. Our indicative findings suggest consideration should be given to concurrent intervention targeting both linguistic and psychosocial development as early language interventions may not stave off later psychosocial difficulties in children.

Background: Developmental language disorder (DLD) presents a considerable barrier for young adults to engage in further education and training. Early studies with young adults with DLD revealed poor educational achievement and lack of opportunities to progress in education. More recent studies have provided more positive findings. Relatively sparse data exist, however, on current cohorts and the factors that predict outcomes. Aims: To examine educational and employment outcomes in young adulthood in a sample of people with histories of DLD compared with an age-matched peer group without DLD. We ask How do educational pathways and early jobs compare between those with and without DLD? Are young adults with DLD receiving similar levels of income as their peers? To what extent are language and literacy abilities associated with outcomes? Methods & Procedures: Participants included 84 individuals with DLD (67% males) and 88 age-matched peers without DLD (56% males). Participants were on average 24 years of age. They completed a battery of psycholinguistic, literacy and nonverbal skills assessments. Data were also collected on educational qualifications, current educational status, extent of educational support received, employment status, history and support, as well as current income. Outcomes & Results: Those with DLD obtained lower academic and vocational qualifications. Higher educational/vocational qualifications were associated with better language, better reading and higher performance IQ (PIQ). There were few differences between the two groups in terms of engagement with education, but the mean age at leaving education was significantly earlier in the participants with DLD. Substantially more participants with DLD reported receiving support or dispensation from their educational institution. There was no significant difference between groups in the proportion of young people currently employed, though a higher proportion of the age-matched peers was in work full time. Participants with DLD were much more likely to be in non-professional occupations. However, when examining pay in relation to types of occupation, the groups' incomes were broadly comparable. Conclusions & Implications: At the group level, young people with a history of DLD more commonly have less skilled employment and more rarely achieve professional roles. At the individual level there is considerable variation with smaller but not trivial proportions of young adults with a history of DLD showing good educational and employment outcomes. There are positive aspects to early adult outcomes for some young people with a history of DLD.

Background: There is now substantial literature demonstrating that a disproportionate number of young people who come into contact with youth justice services evidence unidentified language difficulties. These young people, therefore, have received little or no professional input in this area. Conversely, there is a dearth of research pertaining to criminality outcomes among those individuals with identified developmental language disorders (DLD) who have received such interventions. Aims: To examine police-initiated contact and substance use outcomes of young adults with a history of identified DLD versus age-matched peers (AMP). Additionally, self-reported rule breaking behaviours and aggression are considered. We hypothesize that early identification/intervention reduces engagement with risky behaviour such as substance and alcohol use as well as offending-related behaviours. Methods & Procedures: Adversarial police-initiated contacts were examined in 84 young adults with a history of DLD and 88 AMP. Rule-breaking and aggression were evaluated using the Achenbach Adult Self-Report for ages 18-59 years. Outcomes & Results: Adults with a history of DLD who received targeted intervention during their school years reported less contact with their local police service compared with AMPs at age 24. Comparable proportions of both groups reported current alcohol consumption, but group differences were found relating to alcohol use. No group differences in rule-breaking behaviours were found, but the DLD group was found to have a statistically significant higher raw score on the aggressive behaviour scale. Conclusions & Implications: There is a need for early identification of children with DLD. Early intervention aimed at ameliorating such difficulties could possibly have distal outcomes in relation to offending.

Purpose: The purposes of this study were to test the predictions that lower self-esteem and higher shyness in individuals with a history of language impairment (LI) would continue from adolescence into early adulthood and that those with LI would have lower social self-efficacy in early adulthood. Method: Participants were young people with a history of LI and a comparison group of age-matched peers. Both groups were tested at ages 17 and 24 years. Participants completed measures of language ability, nonverbal IQ, shyness, global self-esteem, and (at age 24 years only) social self-efficacy. Results: Young adults with LI scored lower than age-matched peers on self-esteem, higher on shyness, and lower on social self-efficacy (medium to large effect sizes). In line with expectations, in the group with LI, language ability in adolescence predicted shyness in young adulthood, which, in turn, was negatively associated with self-esteem. There was also a direct association between language ability in adolescence and self-esteem in young adulthood. Conclusions: Young people with a history of LI are likely to be entering adulthood less socially confident than their peers. Interventions may be desirable for young adults with LI, and the present findings indicate social self-efficacy as a key area of social confidence that calls for practitioners' attention.

Background: In general, children with specific language impairment (SLI) tend to fall behind their typically developing (TD) peers in educational attainment. Less is known about how children with SLI fare in particular areas of the curriculum and what predicts their levels of performance. Aims: To compare the distributions of performance of children with SLI in three core school subjects (English, Mathematics and Science); to test the possibility that performance would vary across the core subjects; and to examine the extent to which language impairment predicts performance. Methods & Procedures: This study was conducted in England and reports historical data on educational attainments. Teacher assessment and test scores of 176 eleven-year-old children with SLI were examined in the three core subjects and compared with known national norms. Possible predictors of performance were measured, including language ability at ages 7 and 11, educational placement type, and performance IQ. Outcomes & Results: Children with SLI, compared with national norms, were found to be at a disadvantage in core school subjects. Nevertheless, some children attained the levels expected of TD peers. Performance was poorest in English; relative strengths were indicated in Science and, to a lesser extent, in Mathematics. Language skills were significant predictors of performance in all three core subjects. PIQ was the strongest predictor for Mathematics. For Science, both early language skills at 7 years and PIQ made significant contributions. Conclusions & Implications: Language impacts on the school performance of children with SLI, but differentially across subjects. English for these children is the most challenging of the core subjects, reflecting the high levels of language demand it incurs. Science is an area of relative strength and mathematics appears to be intermediate, arguably because some tasks in these subjects can be performed with less reliance on verbal processing. Many children with SLI do have the potential to reach or exceed educational targets that are set at national levels for TD children.

New media are commonplace in children's lives. Speech and language therapists (SLTs), educational psychologists and teachers are sometimes called upon by caregivers to provide advice on whether or how children and young people with language impairments should be encouraged to use these media. This article aims to illuminate some of the key issues and to review the implications of different types of advice that practitioners might provide. Four broad strategies are considered: Prohibition, Laissez-faire, Restriction, and Constructive use. Possible consequences of each strategy are outlined and it is proposed that Constructive use should be the strategy of choice. Reasons in favour of a constructive orientation include the benefits of joint engagement, enjoyment, cognitive and perceptual challenges and social motivation; effective uses can support educational attainment in young people with language impairments. Some areas where children and young people with language impairments need support with new media are noted. Decisions that we make about whether to constrain or support uses of new media have direct implications for the quality of young people's lives and futures. SLTs, educational psychologists and teachers have important roles to play in the development of better-informed policies and strategies concerning language impaired youngsters and digital media.

Background: Identifying 3-4-year-olds who are most at risk of persisting language difficulties, and possibly specific language impairment (SLI), is difficult due to the natural variation of language in young children. In older children, markers for SLI have been identified that differentiate between children with and without SLI. It is not known whether these markers can be used at an earlier age to identify children most at risk of persisting language difficulties. Aims: To identify possible risk markers of current status that distinguish children who have specific expressive language delay (SELD) from the variation observed in normally developing children at age 3;0-4;0 and 4;0-5;0. To determine the most suitable measure(s) that would predict which children with SELD at age 3;0-4;0 were likely to have persistent expressive language delay (PELD) at age 4;0-5;0. Methods & Procedures: Forty-seven children with SELD and 47 children with typical language development (TLD) were assessed on language, nonverbal IQ and marker tasks at age 3;0-4;0 (baseline). Ninety-one children were reassessed on the measures one year later (follow-up). At both time points, the marker tasks were compared with a reference standard (Expressive Communication subscale (EC) of the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3) (UK)) to determine the most useful marker for identifying children with SELD. Possible predictors were examined to determine the most suitable measure(s) that would predict which children with SELD at baseline were likely to have PELD at follow-up. Outcome & Results: A modified version of Recalling Sentences, a subtest of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF)-Preschool UK, was the most useful marker for identifying children with SELD at baseline and at follow-up. Thirty-five (76.1%) of the 46 children with SELD at baseline had PELD at follow-up. Performance on the Auditory Comprehension (AC) and EC subscales of the PLS-3 (UK) and on modified Recalling Sentences at age 3;0-4;0 were predictors of PELD at age 4;0-5;0. Conclusions & implications: A modified Recalling Sentences task was a good risk marker for SELD at age 3;0-4;0 and SELD at age 4;0-5;0. PLS-3 AC, PLS-3 EC and modified Recalling Sentences at baseline were the best predictors of PELD. The use of modified Recalling Sentences as a predictive marker requires confirmation.

This review examined the status of long-term memory systems in specific language impairment (SLI)--declarative memory and aspects of procedural memory in particular. Studies included in the review were identified following a systematic search of the literature and findings combined using meta-analysis. This review showed that individuals with SLI are poorer than age-matched controls in the learning and retrieval of verbal information from the declarative memory. However, there is evidence to suggest that the problems with declarative learning and memory for verbal information in SLI might be due to difficulties with verbal working memory and language. The learning and retrieval of nonverbal information from declarative memory appears relatively intact. In relation to procedural learning and memory, evidence indicates poor implicit learning of verbal information. Findings pertaining to nonverbal information have been mixed. This review of the literature indicates that there are now substantial grounds for suspecting that multiple memory systems may be implicated in the impairment.

We investigate two aspects of the autism triad, communication and social difficulties, in relatives of specific language impairment (SLI) probands (with and without additional autistic symptomatology) as compared to relatives of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Down's syndrome (DS) probands. Findings involving 726 first degree relatives of 85 SLI, 99 ASD and 36 DS probands revealed a higher rate of communication difficulties in relatives of both subgroups of SLI probands compared to ASD and DS relatives. Similar levels of social deficits were found in relatives of SLI + ASD and ASD probands. There was a higher than would be expected rate (4.3%) of ASD, particularly in siblings of SLI + ASD probands. Communication and social deficits appear to breed true in SLI and ASD.

Purpose: To investigate the longitudinal trajectories of verbal and nonverbal skills in individuals with a history of specific language impairment (SLI) from childhood to adolescence. This study focuses on SLI only and investigates within-participant measures across abilities. Method: Verbal and nonverbal skills were assessed in 242 children with a history of SLI at ages 7, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 17. Discrete factor growth modeling was used to examine developmental trajectories for the whole group and to identify subgroups on the basis of a novel, developmental, multidimensional approach. Results: When expressive language, receptive language, and nonverbal skills were scaled to a common metric, the group of individuals with a history of SLI as a whole had stable skills growth throughout the 10-year time frame. Seven language subgroups were identified, but these differed only in severity and did not display mutually distinctive patterns of growth development. In contrast, 6 nonverbal skills subgroups were identified, and their trajectories did differ significantly, with evidence of deceleration in around one third of the sample. Conclusion: Individuals with a history of SLI show steady language growth from age 7. However, different patterns of growth of nonverbal skills are observed from childhood to adolescence.

In contrast to dyslexia and autism, specific language impairment (SLI) is a neglected condition not only in research, but also in debates about policy and practice. A recent analysis of research publications and grants confirmed this impression, showing that SLI attracted far less research funding and led to fewer publications than many other conditions of comparable frequency and severity. At the end of 2011, the authors decided to take action and formed a group with the name RALLI, standing for "raising awareness of language learning impairments." This group consists of four academics, two of whom trained as speech and language therapists and two as clinical psychologists, together with a practicing speech and language therapist. They decided that what was needed was a campaign to put accessible materials on the internet in a form that would attract attention from the general public. Their aim was not to raise money or to improve provision, but simply to improve the recognition of children's language impairments. In this article, the authors describe the background and rationale of the internet campaign to raise awareness of language learning impairments (RALLI).

Purpose: This study examined the postschool educational and employment experiences of young people with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Method: Nineteen-year-olds with (n = 50) and without (n = 50) SLI were interviewed on their education and employment experiences since finishing compulsory secondary education. Results: On average, young people with SLI were less successful than their peers without SLI, but they did attain some achievements. Young people with SLI obtained approximately 2, mostly vocational qualifications in the first few years post school. Young people continuing in education at 19 years were most commonly in lower level educational placements than their typically developing (TD) peers. Performance IQ and language/literacy skills were the strongest predictors of educational experience level at this age. Young people with SLI truant less and report feeling more supported than TD peers. In terms of employment, similar proportions of young people with and without SLI had jobs. A larger proportion of young people with SLI, however, were not in education, employment, or training at 19 years of age. Conclusion: In the immediate postschool years, young people with SLI fare less well in education and employment than their TD peers.

Young people with specific language impairment (SLI) are at risk for poorer outcomes with respect to employment in adulthood, yet little is known of how early school-age prework experiences prepare them for the job market. This study examined whether young people with SLI engage in similar types of early work experiences as their typically developing (TD) peers. A total of 139 young people with a history of SLI and 124 TD peers attending their final year of compulsory secondary education were interviewed about early work experiences, current part-time employment, career aspirations, and perceived workplace challenges. Individuals with SLI experienced different types of work placements and were more likely to aspire to manual tasks, whereas their TD peers aspired to professional roles. Differences in early prework experiences and vocational aspirations are already evident in 16-year-old young people with SLI. Several challenges and potential barriers to employment are identified. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

Background: Contemporary adolescents use e-mail for a variety of purposes, including peer communication and education. Research into these uses has focused on typically developing individuals; much less is known about the use of e-mail by exceptional youth. Aims: The present study examined the structure and form of e-mail messages sent by adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Methods & Procedures: Thirty-eight adolescents with a history of SLI and 56 typically developing (TD) peers were assessed on measures of nonverbal abilities, core language skills and literacy skills (reading and spelling). The participants were asked to compose an e-mail reply to a standard e-mail sent by an experimenter. These reply e-mails were coded for linguistic structure, readability and spelling errors. Two adult raters, blind to the participants' language ability, judged how understandable the e-mails were, how grammatically correct the e-mails were, and also the sender's command of the English language. Outcomes & Results: Adolescents with a history of SLI produced e-mails that were similar to those sent by their TD peers in terms of structure and readability. However, they made significantly more spelling errors. Furthermore, the adult raters considered the messages from participants with a history of SLI to be of poorer standard than those sent by their TD peers. Conclusions & Implications: The findings suggest that the e-mail messages of adolescents with a history of SLI provide indicators of the sender's language and literacy skills. Implications for intervention and technology development are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

This study investigates whether the level of language ability and presence of autistic symptomatology in adolescents with a history of SLI is associated with differences in the pattern of difficulties across a number of areas of later functioning. Fifty-two adolescents with a history of SLI participated. At age 14, 26 participants had a history of SLI but no autistic symptomatology and 26 had a history of SLI and autistic symptomatology. At age 16, outcomes were assessed in the areas of friendships, independence, academic achievement, emotional health and early work experience for both subgroups and for 85 typically developing peers. Autistic symptomatology was a strong predictor of outcomes in friendships, independence and early work experience whilst language was a strong predictor of academic achievement. No significant associations were found for later emotional health.

Social interactions can be a source of social stress for adolescents. Little is known about how adolescents with developmental difficulties, such as specific language impairment (SLI), feel when interacting socially. Participants included 28 adolescents with SLI and 28 adolescents with typical language abilities (TL). Self-report measures of social stress, social skills and social acceptance were obtained. Participants with SLI reported experiencing significantly more social stress than did participants with TL. Both groups judged themselves as having adequate social skills and positive social acceptance. Expressive language ability was negatively associated with social stress, but did not predict social stress when social factors were included in the regression model. Perceived social skills and social acceptance scores predicted social stress, in that poorer scores predicted more social stress. Despite perceiving themselves as having adequate social skills and as being socially accepted, social interactions are nonetheless a source of stress for adolescents with SLI.

Purpose: Engagement in close friendships and romantic relationships becomes particularly salient in adolescence. This study examined the influence of language, behavioral, and social variables on the level of emotional engagement experienced by adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Method: Ninety adolescents with SLI and 91 adolescents with typical language abilities (TD) completed two assessment sessions between the ages of 16 and 17. Results: The group with SLI had significantly lower emotional engagement scores than the TD group. Some 24% of adolescents with a history of SLI were judged to have poor emotional engagement in close relationships, compared to only 2% of the TD adolescents. A regression analysis found that language ability, prosocial behavior, and shyness were concurrently predictive of level of emotional engagement in close relationships. Conclusion: Some adolescents with SLI may be less emotionally engaged in their close relationships than their TD peers.

This article provides a review of research into the social and emotional functioning of adolescents with specific language impairment (SLI). In particular, we focus on peer relations, peer friendships, bullying, emotional difficulties and psychiatric difficulties. As a group, adolescents with SLI tend to be more vulnerable to problems in these domains than are typical adolescents. However, there is considerable heterogeneity among those with SLI, and some individuals experience positive outcomes. We stress the need to understand adolescence and SLI in a developmental context. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the research findings for service provision to support the needs of young people with language impairments.

The Keynote Article is a very welcomed, timely, and incisive review article that examines theoretical and clinical implications of research on bilingual development and specific language impairment (SLI). Paradis provides a considered examination of the available evidence and takes into account a number of potential influencing factors. In particular, I want to commend her discussion of potential compensatory mechanisms that may play a role in bilingual development in SLI. This is often a neglected area in discussions concerning SLI. I also want to highlight that I agree wholeheartedly with her conclusion that the evidence to date "leans toward a positive attitude toward dual language learning for children with SLI who are in a supportive context for bilingualism." This message is by no means universally accepted, nor is it put into action in therapeutic contexts across the United Kingdom and Europe. There is still much debate as to what type of advice should be given to parents and what the target language or languages of therapy should be (Harulow, 2008). This review article has therefore the potential not only to make a significant contribution to theory but also to practice.

Individuals with a history of specific language impairment (SLI) often have subsequent problems with reading skills, but there have been some discrepant findings as to the developmental time course of these skills. This study investigates the developmental trajectories of reading skills over a 9-year time-span (from 7 to 16 years of age) in a large sample of individuals with a history of SLI. Relationships among reading skills, autistic symptomatology, and language-related abilities were also investigated. The results indicate that both reading accuracy and comprehension are deficient but that the development of these skills progresses in a consistently parallel fashion to what would be expected from a normative sample of same age peers. Language-related abilities were strongly associated with reading skills. Unlike individuals with SLI only, those with SLI and additional autistic symptomatology had adequate reading accuracy but did not differ from the individuals with SLI only in reading comprehension. They exhibited a significant gap between what they could read and what they could understand when reading. These findings provide strong evidence that individuals with SLI experience continued, long-term deficits in reading skills from childhood to adolescence.

Purpose: This study aimed to compare cell phone use (both oral and text-based) by adolescents with and without specific language impairment (SLI) and examine the extent to which language and social factors affect frequency of use. Method: Both interview and diary methods were used to compare oral and text-based communication using cell phones by 17-year-olds: 52 adolescents with SLI and 52 typically developing (TD) peers. Results: Overall, adolescents with SLI are motivated users of mobile technology, and they engage with both oral uses (phoning) and text-based uses (text messaging). However, adolescents with SLI do not exchange text messages as often as their TD peers. Social rather than language factors are associated with frequency of cell phone use in adolescence. Conclusions: These findings indicate that social difficulties restrict text-based uses of cell phones by adolescents with SLI, which can in turn reduce the opportunities that these adolescents have to develop social networks and make arrangements to engage in peer social interaction.

Background: Much evidence has accumulated to indicate memory deficits in children with specific language impairment. However, most research has focused on working memory impairments in these children. Less is known about the functioning of other memory systems in this population. Aims: This study examined procedural and declarative memory in young children with and without specific language impairment. Methods & Procedures: A total of 15 children with specific language impairment and 15 non-impaired children of comparable age, gender and handedness were presented with measures of procedural and declarative memory. Procedural memory was assessed using a Serial Reaction Time (SRT) Task in which children implicitly learnt a ten-item sequence pattern. Declarative memory for verbal and visual information was assessed using paired associative learning tasks. Outcomes & Results: The results from the SRT Task showed the children with specific language impairment did not learn the sequence at levels comparable with the non-impaired children. On the measures of declarative memory, differences between the groups were observed on the verbal but not the visual task. The differences on the verbal declarative memory task were found after statistically controlling for differences in vocabulary and phonological short-term memory. Conclusions & Implications: The results were interpreted to suggest an uneven profile of memory functioning in specific language impairment. On measures of declarative memory, specific language impairment appears to be associated with difficulties learning verbal information. At the same time, procedural memory is also appears to be impaired. Collectively, this study indicates multiple memory impairments in specific language impairment. (Contains 4 tables and 2 figures.)

We explore potential similarities between developmental dyslexia (specific reading disability [SRD]) and specific language impairment (SLI) in terms of phonological skills, underlying auditory processing abilities, and nonphonological language skills. Children aged 9 to 11 years with reading and/or language difficulties were recruited and compared to chronological-age controls on phonological skills (rhyme awareness, rhyme fluency, phoneme awareness, phonological short-term memory), nonphonological language skills (vocabulary, grammatical morphology, sentence processing) and auditory processing of rise time and intensity. The SRD children performed poorly on all phonological awareness tasks and had significantly poorer rise time perception. The SLI children showed consistent impairments in phonological and nonphonological but not auditory skills. The SLI/SRD group showed consistent impairments across phonological and nonphonological skills and auditory processing. It is concluded that there is substantial overlap between these disorders at the level of phonological skills and auditory processing, and shared variance with nonphonological language skills. (Contains 6 tables and 2 figures.)

Individuals who are anxious about computers may be at a disadvantage in their learning. This investigation focused on the use of home computers for educational purposes. It compared computer anxiety in adolescents with and without a history of special needs related to language difficulties. Participants were 55 17-year-olds with specific language impairment (SLI) and 72 typically developing (TD) peers. Participants completed interviews regarding computer anxiety as well as computer importance and computer enjoyment. Measures of psycholinguistic skills, perceived ease of use and general anxiety were also obtained. Results showed that adolescents with SLI experience more computer anxiety than TD peers and that females are more anxious than males. Level of general anxiety, perceived ease of use and language ability had a direct association and were predictive of level of computer anxiety in adolescents with SLI. In contrast, only perceived ease of use was significantly predictive in TD adolescents. Gender was not a significant predictor in the context of other influential variables. The findings reveal a complex relationship between linguistic, attitudinal and emotional factors and computer anxiety. Adolescents with SLI who are at a greater risk may require multifaceted support for a number of influencing factors including general anxiety. (Contains 4 tables.)

Background: Several authors have highlighted areas of overlap in symptoms and impairment among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and children with specific language impairment (SLI). By contrast, loss of language and broadly defined regression have been reported as relatively specific to autism. We compare the incidence of language loss and language progression of children with autism and SLI. Methods: We used two complementary studies: the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP) and the Manchester Language Study (MLS) involving children with SLI. This yielded a combined sample of 368 children (305 males and 63 females) assessed in late childhood for autism, history of language loss, epilepsy, language abilities and nonverbal IQ. Results: language loss occurred in just 1% of children with SLI but in 15% of children classified as having autism or autism spectrum disorder. Loss was more common among children with autism rather than milder ASD and is much less frequently reported when language development is delayed. For children who lost language skills before their first phrases, the phrased speech milestone was postponed but long-term language skills were not significantly lower than children with autism but without loss. For the few who experienced language loss after acquiring phrased speech, subsequent cognitive performance is more uncertain. Conclusions: Language loss is highly specific to ASD. The underlying developmental abnormality may be more prevalent than raw data might suggest, its possible presence being hidden for children whose language development is delayed. (Contains 4 figures and 2 tables.)

Many uses of new media entail processing language content, yet little is known about the relationship between language ability and media use in young people. This study compares educational versus interpersonal uses of home computers in adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Participants were 55 17-year-olds with SLI and 72 typically developing peers. Measures of frequency and ease of computer use were obtained as well as assessments of participants' psycholinguistic skills. Results showed a strong preference for interpersonal computer use in both groups. Virtually all participants engaged with interpersonal new media, finding them relatively easy to use. In contrast, one third of adolescents with SLI did not use educational applications during a typical week. Regression analyses revealed that lower frequency of educational use was associated with poorer language and literacy skills. However, in adolescents with SLI, this association was mediated by perceived ease of use. The findings show that language ability contributes to new media use and that adolescents with SLI are at a greater risk of low levels of engagement with educational technology.

Background: This investigation reports the results of national educational examinations in secondary schooling for young people who have been participating in the Manchester Language Study. Aims: The emphasis of the study is on furthering understanding of educational outcomes at the end of compulsory education. Methods & Procedures: A total of 120 adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI) and 121 adolescents with typical development (TD) who were in their final year of compulsory secondary schooling (mean age = 17;4 years) participated. National educational examination results throughout secondary schooling were collected along with a range of psycholinguistic skills from 11 to 16/17 years. Outcomes & Results: Forty-four per cent of young people with SLI obtained at least one of the expected qualifications at the end of secondary education, indicating some improvements compared with reports on earlier cohorts. Regression analyses revealed that literacy and language skills were predictive of educational attainment after controlling for IQ and maternal education. Nearly one-quarter of the sample of adolescents with SLI was not entered for any examinations at the end of compulsory education. A very strong association between earlier patterns of entry for examinations and patterns of examination entry at school leaving age was found. Conclusions: In addition to performance IQ, concurrent and early literacy and language skills have significant effects on the academic attainments of young people with a history of SLI. The transition from primary to secondary schooling is a crucial time for assessment and evaluation of individual children's needs and levels of support required. (Contains 9 tables.)

The opinions of adolescents about their earlier specialist educational provision in the UK, i.e. language units, have received little attention in the literature. This study examines the views of young people and their parents on language units and also evaluates opinions concerning the young people's language difficulties. One hundred and thirty-nine adolescents with specific language impairment (SLI) aged approximately 16 years, who had all attended a language unit at 7 years of age, were interviewed along with their parents and teachers. A broadly positive experience of language unit attendance was reported by young people and their parents. However, a fifth of adolescents and nearly a third of parents thought there had been too little educational support during schooling. In addition, a fifth of the adolescents felt there were lots of ways in which they could not do things currently due to language difficulties. It was also found that nearly a third of the young people had tried to hide their language difficulties in the past year. Within the context of an overall positive picture of results, young people with SLI may require support during adolescence with regard to their continued language difficulties, their confidence and self-esteem. (Contains 5 tables.)

Purpose: To determine if lower global self-esteem, shyness, and low sociability are outcomes associated with SLI in adolescence. Possible concurrent predictive relationships and gender differences were also examined. Method: Fifty-four adolescents with SLI, aged between 16 and 17 years, were compared with a group of 54 adolescents with typical language abilities on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1965) and the Cheek and Buss Shyness and Sociability scales (Cheek & Buss, 1981). Results: The SLI group had significantly lower global self-esteem scores than the group with typical language abilities. The adolescents with SLI were more shy than their peers, but the groups did not differ in their sociability ratings. Regression analysis found that language ability was not concurrently predictive of self-esteem but shyness was. Mediation analysis suggested that shyness could be a partial but significant mediator in the relationship between language ability and global self-esteem. Conclusions: Older adolescents with SLI are at risk of lower global self-esteem and experience shyness, although they want to interact socially. The relationship between language ability and self-esteem at this point in adolescence is complex, with shyness potentially playing an important mediating role.

Abstract: Social skill and language are known to relate, not least in the example of those with specific language impairment (SLI). However, most of the research examining this trend has been conducted on young primary school age children and the nature of the relationships is unclear. Furthermore, little is known about which young people in general have social difficulties and whether language, social cognition, and social skills are directly associated at this age. In this study, a large cohort made up of young people with a history of SLI (N = 134) and a typically developing (TD) group (N = 124) of the same age were followed up in their final year of compulsory schooling (aged 16). Language, social cognition, social skills, and functional social outcomes (friendships and levels of social activity) were assessed using tasks and questionnaires. Modest associations were found between social cognition, language, and social behaviours, the strongest being between language and social cognition. Regression analyses showed that as a combined group, the adolescents' functional social outcomes were most associated with expressive language, social skill, and social cognitive ability. However, the patterns differed when the groups were analysed separately, with social cognition playing more of a role for those with SLI. These findings suggest that poor language may play a complex role in adolescents' social development.

Objective: This study examined the emotional health of adolescents with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Method: One hundred and thirty-nine adolescents with a history of SLI (15;10 years) and a peer group of 124 adolescents with normal language development (NLD) (15;11 years) participated, who were in their final year of compulsory schooling. The risk of emotional difficulties was assessed using the Moods and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ) and the Child Manifest Anxiety Scale-R (CMAS-R). Comprehensive language and cognition data were available for all participants (NLD and SLI) concurrently and also longitudinally for those with SLI. Results: A clear increased risk of emotional health symptoms was found for the SLI group on both self- and parental-report. Girls scored less favourably than boys when groups were combined, but these were due to the effect of the NLD group, with no gender differences found in the SLI group. Direct links with language and cognition were not obvious. Instead, more diffuse factors such as family history of emotional health difficulties may warrant further investigation. Conclusion: There is a marked higher rate of anxiety and depression symptoms in adolescents with SLI. However, these do not appear to be a direct result of impoverished communicative experiences.

Purpose: Achieving behavioral independence is a key task of adolescent development. This 1 article of a companion set of 2 (the 2nd addressing the topic of parental perspectives) presents an investigation of the impact of language ability on independence. Method: Longitudinal and follow-up data from 120 adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI), as well as concurrent data on a comparison group of 118 typically developing (TD) young people, are reported. Parental and self-report measures were used to examine independent functioning related to everyday living at the end of compulsory education (16 years of age). Results: Adolescents with SLI are less independent than their TD peers, and level of independence is associated with poor early language and poor later literacy skills. Conclusion: Language and literacy play a larger role in adolescent independent functioning than nonverbal abilities in both TD adolescents and adolescents with SLI.

Purpose: This is the 2nd article of a companion set (the 1st article being on language and independence). It presents research examining parental perspectives on aspects of impairment in their offspring involving families rearing children with specific language impairment (SLI). Method: The same sample as that of the 1st study participated in this investigation: a total of 238 parents and their offspring (120 offspring with a history of SLI and 118 typically developing [TD] offspring). Parents were interviewed using the Transition Daily Rewards and Worries questionnaire (L. M. Glidden & B. M. Jobe, 2007; J. Menard, S. Schoolcraft, L. M. Glidden, & C. Lazarus, 2002). Measures of the adolescents' receptive and expressive language, reading, nonverbal IQ, and socioemotional functioning were obtained. Results: Parents of adolescents with a history of SLI had more negative expectations in the areas of future/adult life, socialization, and community resources. An exception was family relations, which was a source of reward for both sets of parents. Conclusions: Parents of adolescents with SLI have a range of perspectives regarding their offspring; some raise concerns, some are more positive. In addition, there is striking heterogeneity in the experiences of parents in the SLI group. Variables that influence being a concerned parent involve the adolescent's level of independence, quality of peer relations, his or her prosocial behavior, and the presence of conduct problems. [For companion article, see EJ784122.]

Background: Narrative may provide a useful way in which to assess the language ability of adolescents with specific language impairment and may be more ecologically valid than standardized tests. However, the language of this age group is seldom studied and, furthermore, the effect of narrative genre has not been explored in detail. Methods & Procedures: A total of 99 typically developing adolescents and 19 peers with specific language impairment were given two different types of narrative task: a story-telling condition and a conversational condition. Four areas of narrative (productivity, syntactic complexity, syntactic errors and performance) were assessed. Outcomes & Results: The group with specific language impairment was poorer on most aspects of narrative confirming recent research that specific language impairment is a long-term disorder. A number of measures also showed interactions between group and genre, with story-telling proving to be a disproportionately more difficult task for the specific language impairment group. Error analysis also suggested that the specific language impairment group was making qualitatively different errors to the typically developing group, even within a genre. Conclusions: Adolescents with specific language impairment are not only poorer at both types of narrative than peers, but also show different patterns of competence and error, and require more support from the narrative-partner. Clinical Implications: Assessments of adolescents are less frequent than at younger ages. This is partly because of the sparsity of tests available in this age range. Qualitative analysis of narrative might prove a useful alternative. The findings suggest that in every-day conversation, young people with specific language impairment manage their difficulties more discreetly and this might make them harder to identify in a mainstream setting. (Contains 7 tables and 4 figures.)

Rapid processing deficits have been the subject of much debate in the literature on specific language impairment (SLI). Hari and Renvall (2001) [Hari, R. & Renvall, H. (2001). Impaired processing of rapid stimulus sequences in dyslexia. "Trends in cognitive sciences", 5, 525-532.] proposed that the source of this deficit can be attributed to sluggish attentional shifting abilities. That is, more time is required to shift attention between stimuli. To test this claim, 26 adolescents with SLI (divided into two subgroups to control for differences in non-verbal intelligence) and 14 controls were presented with a rapid serial visual presentation task. In this task participants were asked to detect two visual targets presented serially with distracter items with varying inter-target intervals (i.e., time difference between targets). This task was designed to elicit an attentional blink (AB). The AB describes the phenomenon whereby non-impaired individuals are less likely to report the second of two targets presented within 200-500ms of each other. After controlling for group differences in non-verbal intelligence, the SLI group was found to be significantly less accurate than the control group at successfully reporting the second target at inter-target intervals of 100, 200, 300, 400 and 800ms. The results were interpreted to suggest that adolescents with language impairments have an AB which differs from non-impaired individuals in both magnitude and duration.

Background: Research has consistently documented a relationship between phonological short-term memory skills (STM) and specific language impairment (SLI). This study reports on the development of phonological STM abilities over 3 years in 80 young adolescents with a history of SLI, investigating the nature of the relationship between phonological STM abilities and language and literacy skills, and vice versa. Methods: Tests of nonverbal ability, expressive and receptive language, reading and nonword repetition were administered at 11 and 14 years of age. Results: There was striking longitudinal stability of phonological STM capacity in young people with SLI. This finding was consistent for the group as a whole, for subgroups, and at the individual level. Regression analyses revealed reciprocal relationships between phonological STM abilities and language/literacy measures. In particular, phonological STM abilities contributed significantly to later expressive language skills and basic reading skills contributed to later phonological STM abilities. Poor phonological STM abilities related to Expressive-Receptive profiles of SLI (ER-SLI) and to the presence of reading difficulties. Conclusions: Relationships among the processes involved in language, literacy and memory in young adolescents with SLI indicate complex reciprocal interactions across development.

Language is drawn on extensively in friendships but has received scant attention in the developmental literature. This study compared friendship quality in 16-year-old adolescents with and without specific language impairment (SLI), testing the extent it is predicted by individual differences in social behaviors and language ability. Participants were 120 adolescents with SLI and 118 typically developing (TD) adolescents. After considering the effects of nonverbal IQ and prosocial and difficult behavior, language measures were found to be associated with friendship quality. The TD participants enjoyed normal friendships, whereas the participants with SLI were more likely to exhibit poorer quality (although 60% experienced good quality of friendships). Longitudinal analyses identified early language difficulties as predictive of poorer friendship quality in adolescence.

There is a debate about whether the language of children with primary language disorders and normal cognitive levels is qualitatively different from those with language impairments who have low or borderline non-verbal IQ (NVIQ). As children reach adolescence, this distinction may be even harder to ascertain, especially in naturalistic settings. Narrative may provide a useful, ecologically valid way in which to assess the language ability of adolescents with specific language impairment (SLI) who have intact or lowered NVIQ and to determine whether there is any discernable difference in every day language. Nineteen adolescents with a history of SLI completed two narrative tasks: a story telling condition and a conversational condition. Just under half the group (n = 8) had non-verbal IQs of 85. The remaining 11 had NVIQs in the normal range or above. Four areas of narrative (productivity, syntax, cohesion and performance) were assessed. There were no differences between the groups on standardized tests of language. However, the group with low NVIQ were poorer on most aspects of narrative, suggesting that cognitive level is important, even when language is the primary disorder. The groups showed similar patterns of differences between story telling and conversational narrative. It was concluded that adolescents with a history of SLI and poor cognitive levels have poorer narrative skills than those with normal range NVIQ even though these may not be detected by standardized assessment. Their difficulties present as qualitatively similar to those with normal range NVIQ and narratives appear impoverished rather than inaccurate.

The present study explores the characteristics and concerns of a group of mothers of young people with a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Altogether, 52 young people and their mothers participated. Psychometric tests were used to assess mothers' cognitive and literacy performance and socio-economic status was also recorded. Maternal concerns about their young people were taken from the Autism Diagnostic Interview. Young people were also assessed for language, literacy and cognitive performance. Number and type of concerns as well as the ways in which child and mother characteristics relate to maternal concern were examined. The findings revealed that mothers of those with SLI were no more likely to have language difficulties than those in the general population. The majority of mothers reported either one concern (36.5%), or two concerns (36.5%) for their adolescents. A smaller group reported more concerns (11.5%) and eight mothers reported no concerns for their adolescents (15%). The most common reported primary maternal concern was the future, followed by social and educational concerns. Interestingly, few mothers reported speech and language concerns. Furthermore, maternal concerns for their adolescents were not related to the young people's own characteristics. Whilst most parent characteristics were also not associated with their concerns, type of concern reported appeared to be related to mothers' own skills: higher overall IQ and literacy scores were found for parents reporting concerns about their adolescent's social skill.

Background: Traditionally, autism and specific language impairment (SLI) have been regarded as distinct disorders but, more recently, evidence has been put forward for a closer link between them: a common set of language problems, in particular receptive language difficulties and the existence of intermediate cases including pragmatic language impairment. The present study aimed to examine the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in a large sample of adolescents with a history of SLI. Method: The presence of autism spectrum disorders was examined in seventy-six 14-year-olds with a confirmed history of SLI. A variety of instruments were employed, including the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Family History Interview (FHI). Results: The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in young people with SLI was found to be 3.9%, about 10 times what would be expected from the general population. In addition, a much larger number of young people with a history of SLI showed only some autism spectrum symptoms or showed them in a mild form. Conclusions: Young people with SLI have an increased risk of autism. The magnitude of this risk is considerable. In addition, a larger proportion (a quarter of individuals) present with a number of behaviours consistent with autism spectrum disorders.

Purpose: Two approaches commonly used for estimating prevalence of language disorders in families were compared. The 1st involved examining a subset of language items from an investigator-based interview used to record parental information on the language and literacy difficulties in relatives. The 2nd was the direct assessment of ability in immediate family using a battery of standardized verbal ability, language, and literacy assessments. Method: Using these 2 methods, the prevalence of language and literacy disorders was investigated in the immediate family (n = 271) of 93 children with a history of SLI (mean age 13;11 years). Results: The overall proportion of relatives with reported language or literacy difficulty was similar for both methods (34.5% for reported difficulties compared with 35% on direct assessment). The present study further explored maternal, paternal, and sibling prevalence rates and strength of agreement between parental interview and direct assessment. When a low cutoff score was used, good agreement (of true negatives and true positives) for reading and spelling difficulties and expressive language between the 2 types of case identification method was found. Conclusions: Parents can be effective identifiers when the impairment is severe (below 2 "SDs" from the population mean). Poor agreement was observed between report and assessment of receptive language difficulties. (Contains 7 tables and 1 figure.)

The literacy abilities of 11-year old children with specific language impairment (SLI) were investigated through comparing subgroups with current expressive-only language impairment (E-SLI, n 30), current combined expressive and receptive language impairment (ER-SLI, n 32) and a history of now-resolved language impairment (Resolved-SLI, n 28). The ER-SLI subgroup performed less well than the E-SLI subgroup on measures of single word reading and reading comprehension and in turn the E-SLI subgroup performed less well than the Resolved-SLI subgroup. Further analysis of individual variation within subgroups revealed that all three subgroups had a considerable proportion of individuals with literacy difficulties. In addition, direct comparisons of E-SLI versus ER-SLI subgroups revealed the ER-SLI subgroup to have a significantly larger proportion of children with severe literacy difficulties than the E-SLI subgroup. In contrast, the Resolved-SLI subgroup had virtually no children with severe literacy difficulties. The implications of these findings for practice are discussed.

Purpose: This study explored the effect of frequency (number of presentations), and spacing (period between presentations) on verb learning in children with specific language impairment (SLI). Children learn words more efficiently when presentations are frequent and appropriately spaced, and this study investigated whether children with SLI likewise benefit. Given that these children demonstrate greater frequency dependence and rapid forgetting of recently acquired words, an investigation of frequency and spacing in this population is especially warranted. Method: Twenty-four children with SLI (mean age 5;6 [years;months]) and 24 language-matched control children (mean age 3;4) were taught novel verbs during play sessions. In a repeated measures design, 4 experimental conditions combined frequency (12 or 18 presentations) and spacing (all presentations in 1 session, or spread over 4 days). Comprehension and production probes were administered after the final session and 1 week later. Results: Although the children with SLI benefited significantly from frequent and widely spaced presentations, there were no significant effect in the control group. The language-impaired children showed rapid forgetting. Conclusions: The frequency and spacing of presentations crucially affect the verb learning of children with SLI. A training regimen characterized by appropriately spaced intervals and moderate repetition will optimally benefit lexical learning. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

Background: The study is concerned with the cognitive abilities of children with specific language impairment (SLI). Previous research has indicated that children with SLI demonstrate difficulties with certain cognitive tasks despite normal non-verbal IQ scores. It has been suggested that a general processing limitation might account for the pattern of language and cognitive difficulties seen in children with SLI. The performances on a visuo-spatial short-term memory task and a visuo-spatial processing task were considered in a group of young children with SLI. Verbal short-term memory was also measured. Aims: To identify whether children with SLI demonstrate difficulties with visuo-spatial memory as well as verbal short-term memory. To see whether a visuo-spatial processing task without short-term memory requirements is problematic for children with SLI. To consider performance on these tasks over time. Methods & Procedures: Nine children with SLI (mean age 3;9 years at the study outset) and nine typically developing children (mean age 3;9 years at the study outset) were visited on three occasions over 1 year. Verbal short-term memory, visuo-spatial short-term memory and visuo-spatial processing tasks were administered to the children, and performance over time was compared between the two groups. Outcomes & Results: The children with SLI performed at a lower level than the typically developing children on the verbal short-term memory task. Both groups showed similar development on the verbal short-term memory task and the visuo-spatial processing task over time. Only the visuo-spatial short-term memory task showed slower development over time in the children with SLI relative to the typically developing children. Conclusions: Children with SLI demonstrated slower development on a visuo-spatial short-term memory task relative to typically developing children of the same chronological age. This finding has implications for speech and language therapists and other professionals working with children with SLI. It may mean that only certain types of visual support are suitable, and that children with SLI will have difficulty with tasks requiring a high level of processing, or a number of mental manipulations.

One of the most influential recent accounts of pronoun case-marking errors in children's speech is C. T. Schutze and K. Wexler's (1996) agreement/tense omission model (ATOM). This model predicts that non-nominative subjects with agreeing verbs will be so rare that they can be reasonably disregarded as noise in the data. The present study tested this prediction on data from 4 children with specific language impairment (SLI) by comparing the frequency with which each child produced non-nominative subjects with agreeing verbs and the frequency with which they would be expected to produce such errors by chance given the number of nominative and non-nominative subjects and the number of agreeing and nonagreeing verb forms in the data. The results show (a) that although 3 of the 4 children used non-nominative subjects in their speech, only 2 of them (Nathan and Dan) produced non-nominative subjects with agreeing verbs significantly less often than one would expect by chance; (b) that to the extent that there was an asymmetry in Nathan's and Dan's use of nominative and non-nominative subjects with agreeing verbs, this asymmetry could be explained in terms of developmental changes in their ability to mark case and agreement correctly and the use of potentially unanalyzed contractions; and (c) that Nathan and Dan produced non-nominative subjects with noncontracted agreeing forms about as often as one would expect by chance. These findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical implications for the ATOM and their methodological implications for future work on patterns of pronoun case marking error in the speech of typically developing children and children with SLI.KEY WORDS: specific language impairment, case-marking errors, agreement/ tense omission model

Specific language impairment is sometimes thought to be associated with concurrent difficulties in the area of social and behavioral development (N. Bolting & G. Conti-Ramsden, 2000; D. P. Cantwell & L. Baker, 1987; M. Fujiki, B. Brinton, & C. Todd, 1996; S. Redmond & M. Rice, 1998). The present study follows a group of 242 children, initially studied at age 7 years when they attended language units in England, and assesses their social and behavioral status at age 11 years.In total, 64% of the children were found to have scores on the Rutter behavioral questionnaire (M. Rutter, 1967) of 9 or above (clinical threshold); 34% scored over the threshold for the Strengths and Difficulties questionnaire (R. Goodman, 1997); and 39% scored below average on the Peer Competence subscale of the Harter Perceived Competence Scale (S. Harter & R. Pike, 1984). On further analysis, these generalized difficulties were characterized mainly by poor social competence. In addition, 36% of the cohort were at risk of being regular targets for victimization compared to 12% of a comparison sample of typically developing peers.Few associations were found between social outcome and other measures, including nonverbal intelligence, overall linguistic skill, gender, and longitudinal measures taken previously. Importantly, however, pragmatic language difficulties measured on the Children's Communication Checklist (D. V. M. Bishop, 1998) were most strongly related to poor social outcome and to expressive language related to victimization.

Thirty-two 5-year-old children with specific language impairment (SLI) and 32 chronological age (CA) controls completed 4 tasks that were considered potential positive markers for SLI. Children's performance on 2 linguistic tasks (past tense and noun plurals task) and 2 processing tasks (nonword repetition and digit recall) were examined. This approach allowed the examination of more than 1 type of marker simultaneously, facilitating both comparisons between markers and also the evaluation of combinations of markers in relation to identifying SLI. Children with SLI performed significantly worse than CA controls in all 4 marker tasks. Specificity/sensitivity analysis of the 4 marker tasks revealed nonword repetition and the past tense task to have the best overall accuracy at the 25th and 16th percentile. Finally, stepwise discriminant analysis revealed nonword repetition and past tense marking to be the best markers for identifying young children with SLI.

Background: Adequate assessment of "normal variation" versus "abnormal status" is particularly difficult for clinicians working with young children who are under 5 years of age and who present with slow language development. There is therefore clinical motivation to identify possible key difficulties (or "risk markers") that may distinguish children who are likely to have specific language impairment (SLI) from the variation observed in younger, normally developing children. Aims: The issue of "risk markers" for SLI was explored. It is well known that the issue of markers is controversial. The view presented here is that a risk marker represents a symptom with no assumption about whether the symptom reflects a single cause or that this symptom alone identifies the disorder. Methods and Procedures: The performance of 32 children with SLI was compared with that of 32 younger normal language-learning children on four potential risk marker tasks: non-word repetition, digit recall, past tense provision and plural marking. Outcomes and Results: The findings suggest that processing markers, particularly non-word repetition, have the potential for indicating SLI risk. In particular, children who fall in the bottom quarter of the normal distribution in non-word repetition (performance below the 25th centile) appear to be at risk of SLI. Conclusions: Although these results need to be interpreted cautiously, the evidence is thought to warrant the use of non-word repetition tasks in clinical practice. (Contains 2 tables.)