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Although there is a growing body of research on inferential sentences (Declerck 1992, Delahunty 1990, 1995, 2001, Koops 2007, Pusch 2006), most of this research has been on their forms and functions in written discourse. This has left a gap with regards to their range of structural properties and allowed disagreement over their analysis to linger without a conclusive resolution. Most accounts regard the inferential as a type of it-cleft (Declerck 1992, Delahunty 2001, Huddleston and Pullum 2002, Lambrecht 2001), while a few view it as an instance of extraposition (Collins 1991, Schmid 2009). More recently, Pusch’s work in Romance languages proposes the inferential is used as a discourse marker (2006, forthcoming). Based on a corpus study of examples from spoken New Zealand English, the current paper provides a detailed analysis of the formal and discoursal properties of several sub-types of inferentials (positive, negative, as if and like inferentials). We show that despite their apparent formal differences from the prototypical cleft, inferentials are nevertheless best analysed as a type of cleft, though this requires a minor reinterpretation of “cleft construction.” We show how similar the contextualized interpretations of clefts and inferentials are and how these are a function of their lexis and syntax.

This paper is a corpus based study of the cultural meaning of figuration in the Malay lexicon. Initially, polysemy is examined for evidence of figurative conceptualisation at the single word level for two body part terms, mata 'the eye' andkaki 'the foot /leg'. Compound forms are then examined to identify the extent to which similar conceptualisations are found. Finally, figurative phraseological units (simpulan bahasa) are examined for figurative conceptualisations. We consider the relationship between figurative meaning at the phraseological and lexical levels. The identification of figurative language is made with reference to dictionaries and its saliency is gauged with reference to a corpus of contemporary Malay. A methodology is proposed for the description of cultural resonance. This involves the identification of conceptual keys that, it is suggested, underlie figurative uses of language. Identification takes place by selecting a number of surface forms which share the same underlying idea and calculating the sum of their tokens in the corpus. Illustration is provided of conceptual keys and their cultural resonance; where relevant, comparison is made with English phraseology. A corpus based study of figurative language is, potentially, of great importance in understanding the relationship between lexis and culture in Malay and provides the bedrock for further cross-linguistic research. Keywords: Lexicon, Figurative language, Corpus Analysis, Malay

The article analyzes the semantics, usage and stylistic features of Russian and Bulgarian derivatives from the common Slavic roots děl-, lǫč- and sta- denoting different aspects of the separation of people. The author’s goal is to identify shared and distinct features in the micro-thematic lexical groups and the potential of each of the three roots in the two languages. The investigation is founded on lexicographic, folklore and ethnographic data. The analysis shows that the languages differ in terms of the neutral hyperonym denoting separation (Bulgarian разделям се, Russian расставаться), the internal grammatical asymmetry of the Russian verbs расставаться – *расставать, the richer choice of suffixes used in Russian, etc. The two languages share the poetical markedness of the words разлъка / разлука, richness of the lexis denoting the separation of lovers or spouses, etc. Keywords: contrastive analysis, ethnolinguistics, lexis denoting separation, Bulgarian language, Russian language

This is a qualitative descriptive study analyzes the social process in translation model of foreign exchange service texts at Bank Negara Indonesia Surakarta. The analysis is based on Functional Systemic Linguistics, translation principles and banking policies. The objectives are to: (1) examine the translation quality models (2) explore the benefits of translation models, (3) verify the foreign exchange service text in English and Indonesia (4) know the employees ’ ability toward foreign exchange services (5) reveal the customer’s ability in understanding the transfer transactions. Data are lexicogrammatically system, cohesion and text structure. Samples were taken at Bank Negara Indonesia Surakarta, as it provides overseas services using transaction tools in English and Indonesian texts. The quality of translation is analyzed based on group, lexis, clause, mood structure, theme/rheme and transitivity system; while the benefits of translation is based on tenor enlighten ing the affect, contact and status; whereas mode focused on channels and media. The findings show that quality of translation model of foreign exchange text is stated very good and useful. It is easily understood by customers who applied foreign exchange transactions at Bank Negara Indonesia Surakarta

Levando em consideração o fato de que há uma oscilação na escolha de que morfe deve-se utilizar para a sinalização do plural no português brasileiro, bem como ainda existem as estratégias do uso parcial ou da ausência dessa marcação pelos falantes em contextos linguísticos e sociais variados, neste artigo, busca-se compreender como se estabelece o plural no português de Salvador a partir da interface entre os níveis morfológico, fonológico e fonético, através de uma análise com base teórico-metodológica da Sociolinguística (WEINREICH; LABOV; HERZOG, 2006 [1968]). Para este trabalho preliminar, faz-se uso apenas da abordagem qualitativa de percentuais de ocorrência de alomorfia de plural. Para isso, foi necessária a audição de entrevistas de oito informantes de Salvador realizadas entre 2003 e 2007, fornecidas pelo Atlas linguístico do Brasil (CARDOSO et al., 2014). Como recorte, foram consideradas apenas as treze lexias com possibilidade de ocorrências alomórficas de número encontradas no Questionário Fonético-Fonológico (QFF, questão 76: reais) e no Questionário Morfossintático (QMS, seção “número”: anéis, aventais, pães, mãos, leões, degraus, chapéus, anzóis, olhos, ovos, pincéis, bolsos (COMITÊ NACIONAL, 2001). Os resultados indicam que: i) pessoas pouco escolarizadas, com idade entre 50 e 65 anos e mulheres (por hipercorreção, neste caso) realizam mais o plural irregular; ii) a equivalência de sons finais das palavras (como -L > -U, por exemplo), a partir da vocalização do /l/, provoca a realização de alguns plurais irregulares; iii) entre os tipos de plural, o metafônico, por ser uma estratégia que exigiria uma tripla marcação (sintática, fonética e morfológica), está sujeito naturalmente à redução dessa marcação a apenas um ou dois desses níveis; iv) determinadas lexias, talvez por serem pouco usadas no cotidiano ou pela pouca saliência fônica, favorecem o plural irregular ou a sua não marcação.

The article discusses the linguistic consequences of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, such as the emergence of new words and/or an increase in the frequency of use of some already existing words. The paper is based on material from Bulgarian, Czech and Polish. A frequency approach is applied. Although, the outlined linguistic processes are global in nature, several key aspects differentiate the three chosen languages. The linguistic data were collected using online resources, including the National Corpus of Polish, the Czech National Corpus, the Bulgarian National Corpus, the Polish-Bulgarian-Russian Parallel Corpus, popular word browsers and digital dictionaries, media texts and some of the most recent scientific publications. Keywords: pandemic, lexis, word of the year, neologisms, frequency of use, Bulgarian language, Czech language, Polish language

The article is devoted to the translation quality assessment of W. Shakespeare’s tragedy ‘King Lear’ in the translation by Yu. I. Andrukhovych. The author focuses mainly on the specific features of reproduction of the lexical and textual levels of the tragedy, highlights the general characteristics of the translation strategy of Yu. I. Andrukhovych and his translator’s interpretive position, as based on the translation quality assessment of the herein mentioned above tragedy. Since the translation was published recently and as of today there are no known publications that provide the translation quality assessment of the abovementioned target text, this determines the relevance of the study. Moreover, the present research can be viewed as a contribution not only to the study of the functioning of the sixth Ukrainian translation of Shakespeare’s tragedy in the Ukrainian translated literature, but also as another step towards understanding of the translation personality of Yu. I. Andrukhovych. The results of the translation quality assessment of W. Shakespeare’s tragedy ‘King Lear’ in the Ukrainian translation by Yu. I. Andrukhovych are indicative of the equivalent reproduction of the source language text with slight deviations that occur during the inference of the encoded meanings (ambiguity in the interpretation of certain lines of the original and their simplification). The herein analyzed translation is characterized by the high level of equivalence and proper interpretation of Shakespeare’s puns deserves special praise. In the translation of W. Shakespeare’s tragedy ‘King Lear’ by Yu. I. Andrukhovych we trace the strategy, which to some extent echoes with the strategy that was applied by the translator in the reproduction of W. Shakespeare’s tragedy ‘Hamlet’. A characteristic feature of the Ukrainian translation of W. Shakespeare’s tragedy ‘King Lear’ by Yu. I. Andrukhovych (the reflection of the translator’s interpretative position, his strategy) is the use of the obscene lexis and slang, dialectisms, compound nouns, secondary wordplay, modernization of the target text, stylistic shift in the translation, the presence of ethnocultural allusions.

Bulgarian works of a non-religious nature began to be written in the 19th century. They popularized a specific vision of a new literary language and contained suggestions of terms from various fields. Sophronius, bishop of Vratsa belonged to the group of writers who significantly influenced the shape of New Bulgarian literary language. By translating Aesop’s fables into a language understandable to Bulgarians, he laid the foundations of Bulgarian animalistic terminology. The author analyses 66 names of animals contained in the fables translated by Sophronius, indicates their origin and the reasons for using a specific term. She further examines which of these terms are still used, and which have become archaisms or have survived only in folk dialects.

The article discusses some grammatical peculiarities of the substantive neologisms in the Bulgarian language and analyzes the plural forms of some new one-syllable and multisyllable nouns that violate the grammatical rules. In addition, the authors address newly-formed pluralia tantum nouns and analyze examples of gender variation of some substantive neologisms. Keywords: neologisms, nouns, plural forms, variability, gender, Bulgarian language

The present study propounds a methodology for the translation of Qur’anic lexis in a way that synergizes semantic preference, discourse prosody, and para/intertextuality. Towards the validation of this methodology, the Qur’anic lexical item آيـة (āyah) is investigated at two levels: (a) the intertextual level of the semantic preferences emerging in the various co-texts of āyah inside the Qurʼan and (b) the paratextual level of the overall discourse prosody underlying these semantic preferences in the exegetical contexts of āyah. The research finds firstly that there are four semantic preferences associated with āyah, viz. cosmological phenomena, miraculous tokens, conclusive evidence, and divine revelations/communications. Second, the discourse prosody underlying the Qurʼanic usages of āyah is divine visibility, which motivates the word’s generic English translation as “sign.” Third, in rendering the lexical item آيـة (āyah) into English, the well-known Qur’an translators in the Qurʼanic Arabic Corpus have opted either for “sign,” to maintain the positive discourse prosody associated with the Qur’anic usages of the item, or “token,” “portent,” “miracle(s),” or “verse/revelations/communications,” with a view to observing the semantic preferences associated with them.

Criminal Sociolect in The Criminal Trilogy by Sergiusz Piasecki The author of the article aims at reconstructing the criminal sociolect of the North-Eastern Borderlands in 1918-1919, based on The Criminal Trilogy by Sergiusz Piasecki. The plot of the novels takes place in Minsk Litewski, which, at that time, was full of thieves from all regions of Poland. In the novels, Piasecki recreated the sociolect of thieves living in the North-Eastern Borderlands, using the authentic criminal lexis. The authenticity of this sociolect is confirmed both by the materials provided by Piasecki himself (preface, footnotes and vocabulary of thieves’ language) and by their comparison with other lexicographic scientific descriptions concerning criminal vocabulary from the first half of the twentieth century.

This article provides a corpus-based investigation into shell nouns. Shell nouns perform a variety of referential functions and express speaker stance. The investigation was motivated by the fact that past research in this area has been primarily based on written texts. Very little is known about the use of shell nouns in speech. The study used the ICE-GB corpus of contemporary British English and investigated cataphoric shell nouns complemented by appositive that-clauses across fine-grained spoken and written registers. It has revealed that the deployment of shell nouns is governed by the principle of register formality definable in terms of contextual configurations of the Field-Tenor-Mode complex rather than the mode of production. Additionally, the study has uncovered the frequent use of a small core set of shell nouns common across speech and writing. Hence it argues that shell nouns are part and parcel of spoken and written discourse and that they pertain more to grammar than to lexis.

Although lexical borrowing from the English language into Bangla has been reported in the literature, not many studies have investigated the nature and the extent to which this borrowing has taken place in relation to Bangla short stories. This study examined five Bangla short stories, which were selected based on purposive sampling. Our analysis of the textual data drew upon thematic analysis. The findings of the study illustrated four types of borrowings, which were classified as ‘with Bangla equivalents’, ‘without Bangla equivalents’, ‘with close Bangla equivalents’, and ‘hybridised’. The borrowed words were then further studied to understand the domains in which lexical borrowing took place. Findings reported in this study indicate that an increasing number of English lexis is gradually getting their place within creative writings published in Bangla. These findings provide the basis for the argument that while lexical borrowings can enrich Bangla, this practice may also contribute to marginalising the language by replacing some of its lexis. The study contributes to our understanding of the nature of lexical borrowings from the English language into the contemporary short stories written in Bangla, notably by illustrating the domains in which the borrowings have taken place.Â

This article provides detailed information about the peculiarities of Khorezm kipchak dialects of the Uzbek language. For instance, the phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of lexis in the under research dialect are highlighted basing on the examples. The given examples are compared with the options in other dialects. In this article dialect words are given in Cyrillic letters while the literary language forms of words are given Uzbek alphabet in Latin letters, in order to avoid confusion in pronunciation with English sounds of these letters.

This article gives an insight into the vocabulary of one of the sub-dialects of the Central dialect of the Latvian language – namely, the sub-dialect spoken in Bārta, a place in South-Western Kurzeme. The focus of the article is on those lexical units of the Bārta sub-dialect that are included in one of the most important works of Latvian linguistics – the Latvian Language Dictionary (1923–1932) and it’s Appendix (1934–1946), compiled and published by Kārlis Mīlenbahs, Jānis Endzelīns and Edīte Hauzenberga. The material analyzed here is taken from the electronic version of the Latvian Language Dictionary (www.tezaurs.lv/mev). The vocabulary of the Bārta sub-dialect is represented there by approximately 660 words, among which there are 330 nouns, 253 verbs, 38 adjectives, 30 adverbs, 7 particles, 2 interjections, 2 conjunctions, and 1 preposition.KEY WORDS: Barta sub-dialect, South-Western Kurzeme, Latvian Language Dictionary, lexis, Slavianisms, Lithuanianisms, Germanisms. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/rh.v17i1.1151

Introduction. The article reveals a complicated language situation in the Flemish region of Belgium - a progressing extinction of Germanic dialects, which are historically spread on this territory. Each dialectal group has its unique features, and the West-Flemish and Limburgish groups might have become grounds for particular languages.Methodology and sources. The methodological base consists in a complex approach, combining the comparative-historical and contrastive methods with the method of sociolinguistic interpretation. The investigation is conducted on the language material, collected from different dialectal dictionaries of Dutch, as well as from special linguistic papers on the language situation in Flanders.Results and discussion. The article represents a multiplicity of Germanic dialects, existing on the territory of modern Flanders. A short revue is given on lexical and grammatical peculiarities of four main dialectal groups, as well as on their peculiar phonetics. A special attention is, respectively, paid to the urban dialects of Antwerp, Gent, Bruges and Hasselt. There are analyzed some interferential phenomena, caused by the contact of the investigated dialects with Romanic and Germanic environment and occurring on all language levels - from phonetic to the syntactic ones. It has been suggested, that certain specific grammar forms in Flemish dialects may be result of phonetic interference. For Marols, which originally belongs to the group of Brabant dialects, the juncture between Germanic morphosyntactic structure and Roman lexis is discussed.Conclusion. For the last 20 years the percentage of persons, speaking the Germanic dialects of Flanders, has demonstrated a catastrophic decrease. Along with that, the main features of these dialects (mostly of the Brabant ones) have gone over to an intermediate language “tussentaal”, in both lexis and grammar. This language is being formed inbetween the Germanic dialects and Dutch; the latter is represented in the Flemish region by two variants – standard (common) Dutch and Belgian Dutch. The progressing decrease in the number of persons, speaking the autochthonous dialects of Flanders, is thoughtprovoking towards the exigency to fix the disappearing language variants through a strict scientific way.

This article concentrates on the evidence for the study of Middle Dutch (MDut)-origin words in the Durham Account Rolls (DAR), a set of texts produced in Medieval Latin but deeply informed by the vernaculars (Middle English and Anglo-French). The analysis of the 47 MDut-derived lexemes present in the DAR exposes one of the intrinsic problems in the study of the mutual lexical influences between Germanic languages, which is of a typological nature: the proximity between West Germanic languages – Middle Dutch/Middle Low German and Dutch/English – and the presence of cognates and morphological and phonological similarities may obscure the etymology of words which could have potentially been borrowed or, alternatively, developed independently in English out of common Germanic roots. It also underscores how the study of MDut-origin vocabulary can advance our understanding of the lexico-semantic make-up of multilingual texts.

The first translation of Freud published in Portugal appears to have been a version of the 1905 text Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie, which came out in November 1932 named Sexualidade. Published by the Atica Press in a collection entitled Scientia Vitae, the translator's name – Osorio de Oliveira – was, surprisingly, displayed in a prominent position on the title page. A comparison between this translation, Freud's original and a French version by Blanche Reverchon, that had come out shortly before, shows that it was a case of indirect translation, which reproduced many of the characteristics of the intermediary version. For example, while Freud's original enables the reader to follow the thought processes behind his hypotheses and scientific conclusions, both of the translated texts are much less tentative. This paper explores the circumstances surrounding the production of this Portuguese translation at that moment, the translational options made, and the effect of both on the text's reception. Particular attention is given to the domain of lexis – creation of neologisms, terminological consistency and coherence – and modalization, and whether the terminological options caught on and were reproduced in subsequent translations and commentaries. KEYWORDS: Freud, Translator's Visibility, Manipulation, Vocabulary Creation, Translation Norms This paper explores the circumstances surrounding the production of this Portuguese translation at this particular moment, the translational options made and the effect of both on the text's reception. Particular attention is given to the domain of lexis - creation of neologisms, terminological consistency and coherence - and modalization, and whether the terminological options caught on and were reproduced in subsequent translations and commentaries.

The aim of the article is to present contemporary Belarusian dialects in south-eastern Lithuania (in the Šalčininkai region), which have not been the subject of comprehensive linguistic research so far. The basis of the analysis is mainly the author’s own materials and materials taped by other dialectologists. The structure of these Belarusian dialects (selected features in phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and phraseology) as well as the sociolinguistic aspect of their use in a multilingual environment are demonstrated in the article. The analysis of the collected material shows that the structure of Belarusian dialects in the study area is well-preserved. Belarusian dialectologists regard the Belarusian dialect in the Vilnius Region as a south-western dialect, which should be described in detail. In the statements of interlocutors, one can note the phonetic, morphological and syntactic features typical of: the south-eastern dialect, the Central Belarusian dialect, the Grodno-Baranovichy group of the south-western dialects and the two so-called dialectal zones: western and north-western. On the one hand, it is a territory shaped by two dialectal massifs and one dialect group, on the other hand, it has been influenced by Baltic and Polish for hundreds of years. Particularly noteworthy is the lexis. Decades of coexistence of Belarusians, Lithuanians and Poles on this territory contributed to the fact that in Belarusian dialects there are numerous borrowings from Lithuanian and Polish (and their dialects).

The peculiarities of functioning of demonological lexis in the works of Mykola Gogol in the phi­lo­sophical and linguocultural perspectives are considered in the article. Demonological lexis is determined to be one of the essential segments of ethnocultural representation. It is projected on linguistic culture and creates a peculiar semiotic culture of a particular ethnic group. Ukrainians’ belief in non-Christian culture various mystical forces along with sincere faith in one God, promotes active development of their spiritual culture and philosophical worldview. It is reflected in the artistic heritage. The purpose of the article is the analysis of Ukrainian demonology in Mykola Gogol’s works. The subject of the research is demonological lexis in Mykola Gogol’s works. The methods such as analysis and synthesis, descriptive, observation, contextual-interpretive, lin­guis­tic-stylistic were used for achieving the goal. Ukrainian demonology is proved to be a part of Slavic mythology identity and its attributive element. The philosophical aspect of the article is realized in demonological magic, the connection of the corporeal, spiritual, soul with the body, psychophysiological phenomena, altered states of reality etc. The authors analyzed the existing classifications of demonological lexis and defined that the Ukrainian demonological lexis forms structural, impaired, open microsystem in its constant development.

The paper presents the results of a preliminary research study of inter- and intralingual transfer in young learners’ written production in their L3. The research was conducted with Polish-speaking primary school pupils with two foreign languages, L2 English and L3 German. The analysis of the participants’ errors indicates that all languages of a third language learner may participate in transfer processes. The language areas most affected by transfer are orthography, morphology and lexis. The observed errors point to the gradually developing meta- and cross-linguistic awareness of young learners, as well as their perception of the typological distance between their languages.

The loshn koydesh (Hebrew and Aramaic) component has historically influenced the development of Yiddish lexis and grammar. We examine its contemporary use among 26 native speakers of contemporary Hasidic Yiddish from Israel, New York, and London using a written questionnaire examining the gender of loshn koydesh nouns, periphrastic verbs with a Hebrew/Aramaic element, and adjectives derived from the loshn koydesh element of periphrastics. Our findings show that there are differences on both the geographical and gender axes, many of which are consistent with the speakers’ varied exposure to Modern Hebrew, English, and loshn koydesh. We also found that the loshn koydesh component has developed since the pre-War stage of the language in ways that seem to affect contemporary Hasidic Yiddish usage in all locations and for both genders. We take these developments to provide evidence for the existence of this newly emergent variety of Yiddish – Contemporary Hasidic Yiddish.

The article analyzes the XIX century collection of letter patterns prepared by Józef Chociszewski for children and youths: Listownik dla młodzieży zawierający wzory listów z dodatkiem powinszowań, łamigłówek, wierszyków, powiastek i nauki grzeczności dla młodzieży (Bytom 1900). Letters included in this publication were examined in terms of the author’s use of their species traits (at the structural, pragmatic, cognitive and stylistic level) for youth education.The pattern of the letter by Chociszewski is not only a collection of examples of kids’ and youths’ correspondence, but above all a tool for various aspects of education and upbringing of young Poles during the partitions. The author tried to develop general language skills in his readers and encourage the use of the Polish language, presenting a very wide selection of lexis, formulas and stylistic means for reproduction in various communication situations. He taught them ”language savoir-vivre”. A clear educational purpose were also: a selection of the content of fictitious letters, selection of the authors of authentic letters and the rich system of values characteristic in the Polish Catholic family presented in the letters. In this way, J. Chociszewski aimed to show the Polish culture in the letter-writing manuals and to shape Polish national consciousness. W artykule poddano analizie XIX-wieczny zbiór wzorów listów przygotowany przez Józefa Chociszewskiego dla dzieci i młodzieży: Listownik dla młodzieży zawierający wzory listów z dodatkiem powinszowań, łamigłówek, wierszyków, powiastek i nauki grzeczności dla młodzieży (Bytom 1900). Przyjrzano się zamieszczonym w tej publikacji tekstom listów pod kątem wykorzystania przez autora ich cech gatunkowych (na płaszczyźnie strukturalnej, pragmatycznej, poznawczej i stylistycznej) dla edukacji młodzieży. Listownik Chociszewskiego to nie tylko zbiór przykładów korespondencji dziecięco-młodzieżowej, ale przede wszystkim narzędzie służące różnym aspektom edukacji i wychowania młodych Polaków w czasie zaborów. Autor starał się rozwijać u swoich czytelników ogólną kompetencję językową i zachęcić do używania języka polskiego, przedstawiając bardzo bogaty wybór leksyki, formuł i środków stylistycznych do odtwarzania w różnych sytuacjach komunikacyjnych. Uczył ich przy tym językowego savoir-vivre’u. Wyraźny cel edukacyjno-wychowawczy miały także: dobór treści listów fikcyjnych i wybór autorów listów autentycznych oraz przedstawiony w nich bogaty system wartości charakterystycznych dla polskiej katolickiej rodziny. Chociszewski dążył w ten sposób do ukazania w listowniku polskiej kultury i do kształtowania polskiej świadomości narodowej.

This paper presents the corpus-based lexicographical prototype that was developed within the framework of the project Lexik des gesprochenen Deutsch (=LeGeDe) as a thirdparty funded project. Research results regarding the information offered in dictionaries have shown that there is a necessity for information on spoken lexis and its interactional functions. The resulting LeGeDe-prototype is based on these needs and desiderata and is thus an innovative example for the adequate representation of spoken language in online dictionaries. It is available online since September 2019 (https://www.owid.de/legede/). In the following sections, after first focusing on the presentation of the project’s goals, the data basis, the intended end user, and the applied methods, we will illustrate the microstructure of the prototype and the information provided in a dictionary entry based on the lemma eben. Finally, we will summarize innovative aspects that are important for the implementation of such a resource.

A fair deal of attention has been devoted in Translation Studies to translating for children, whereas little has been written about translating the writings of a child. Concomitantly, little attention has been devoted to how one might deal with the kinds of error in writing that a child might make in syntax and lexis. The work I discuss here was authored in English in by a nine-year-old female child in 1890 and translated into Danish in 1986 by a man in his early middle age, so there are several forms of temporal distance involved. However, the central issue to be faced by a translator of this work, I argue, is conveying the authorial style, which plays a considerable role in the work’s appeal, and given that errors of spelling and expression are important elements of the authorial style in this work, the main challenge that it poses for a translator is to introduce similar phenomena into the translation in a credible manner, something that I argue, and hope to have illustrated, that he has achieved.

Natiolectisms in crime fiction. Language variation in subtitles Sarah Van Hoof and Bram Vandekerckhove (2013) studied linguistic variation in a diachronic corpus of television series broadcast by the Flemish public service broadcaster (VRT). To establish whether there had been a decrease in oral standard Dutch language usage between the late 1970s and the late 2000s, they scrutinised the actors’ rendition of their scripts. They found that less Standard Dutch, but also less dialects were used in the Dutch-language fiction of the late 2000s. The latter contained more colloquial Belgian Dutch, the so-called ‘in-between’ variety (‘tussentaal’). While such sociolinguistic research into local Dutch-language fiction is highly interesting, it is also important to study linguistic variation in translated foreign fiction, as Dutch speakers are exposed a lot to such (audiovisual) translations. This article presents the results of a lexical analysis of a diachronic corpus of crime fiction subtitles (De Ridder 2015). These were broadcast by the VRT before and after their language policy changed in favour of an adherence to the Belgian, rather than the Netherlandic Dutch standard. The aim is to establish whether this resulted in an increase of Belgian Dutch lexis in their subtitles. Remarkably, in each period under scrutiny, in fact, more Netherlandic Dutch lexis was retrieved.

الملخص: تناولت في هذه الدراسة موضوع: التنوع الدلالي لألفاظ الحياة العسکرية في عقد ابن عبد ربه، وانتهجت المنهج الوصفي التحليلي، وقد تمثلت أهميتها في تناول التنوع الدلالي لألفاظ الحياة العسکرية في عصر اتسعت ألفاظه، وتعددت دلالاته، وضاقت معانيه، للوقوف على تصور تلک النقلة الدلالية لهذه الألفاظ من خلال ضبطها. وانتهت الدراسة بنتائج أبرزها: إن التنوع الدلالي ظاهرة شائعة في اللغات، فاللغة ظاهرة اجتماعية تعکس مظاهر الحياة وتصورها وتقدمها بمعان جديدة حسب أهواء المتکلم ونفسيته والظروف المحيطة به، ولا يستطيع أحد وقف ذلک التنوع الذي تفرضها علينا الحضارة، وقد تعددت هذه المظاهر بين الاتساع والانتقال والضيق في الدلالة حسب السياق التي وردت فيه. الکلمات المفتاحية: التنوع الدلالى- الحياة العسکرية- السياق- الحقول الدلالية- العقد الفريد . The Semantic Diversity of the Lexis of the Military Life in the book “Al-Iqd Al-Fareed” by Ibn Abd Rabbo Ali bin Hamad bin Ali Al Riyami Department of Arabic Language and Literature, College of Education and Arts, Sohar University, Sultanate of Oman. Email: ariyami@su.edu.om Abstract : This study aimed to speak about The semantic diversity of the words of military life in the contract of Ibn Abd Rabuh. The study used the descriptive analytical approach. It's significance was to address the semantic diversity of the words of military life in an age whose meanings expanded, multipliedand and narrowed it's meanings, in order to find out the semantic transmission of these words by controlling them. The study ended with the most important results: Semantic diversity is a common phenomenon in languages and the language is a social phenomenon that reflects the manifestations of life, its conception and its progression with new meanings according to the whims of the speaker, his psyche, and the circumstances surrounding him. Also there is no one can stop that diversity imposed on us by civilization. The narrowness in significance according to the context in which it was mentioned. Keywords: Semantic Diversity- militry life- context- semantic fields- Al-Iqd Al-Fareed.

The present paper comparatively analyzes English translations of Urdu fiction by Umer Memon and Saeed Naqvi to identify translational stylistic features. The data for this paper consists of two corpora; the first corpus comprises Memon’s translations (TR1) and the second corpus consists of Naqvi’s translations (TR2). To validate the results, the paper takes Corpus of Canons of Western Literature (CCWL) as a reference corpus. Open class lexis is taken as a stylistic marker. All the three corpora are tagged through Stanford tagger (Toutanova, 2003), and the frequencies of open class lexis are acquired by using AntConc (3.4.4). It is found that TR1 and TR2 show almost the same stylistic qualities on the use of proper nouns, lexical verbs, past tense, comparative and superlative adjectives, and comparative and superlative adverbs. However, the variance occurs in the use of count nouns and proper plural nouns. This paper will contribute to better understand the stylistic features of English translations of Urdu fiction and the trending modes of English translation itself.

The influx of Arabic vocabulary into English has received relatively scarce attention in the past: Taylor (1934) and Cannon Kaye (1994) remain classic lexicographical works, but few subsequent investigations have monographically tackled the Arabic lexical legacy in English. This article concentrates on the Spanish Arabic influence on English, that is, on Arabic-origin lexis specifically used in the Iberian Peninsula as well as on the vocabulary which was mediated by Spanish at some point in its history from Arabic to its adoption into the English language. It assesses two sets of data retrieved from the Oxford English Dictionary and examines the most frequent routes of entry into the English language (e.g. Arabic Spanish French English) and the larger networks of transmissions of these borrowings throughout the history of the language, with particular attention to the late medieval and early modern periods.

Wojciech Piotrowicz (born in 1940) is a Vilnius poet, prose writer, translator, journalist, social and cultural activist. He is the author of several poetry collections and volumes of memoirs. Research on which this paper is based consists of two main parts: we present the writer’s biography, which introduces a representative of the Polish intelligentsia in Lithuania, and an analysis of his lexis from his collection of short stories Moja czasoprzestrzeń (My Space-Time) (2015). The aim of the research is to investigate the lexical layers in the idiolect of the writer. Piotrowicz’s idiolect is the domain where the erudite vocabulary of the standard language blends in with the dialectical vocabulary of the Švenčionys district, in which words of rural life are frequent. In the vocabulary of his idiolect, we distinguish the following groups of lexemes: words from family language, archaisms, dialect words, and postwar Russian borrowings, referred to as “Soviet words”. The multi-layer nature of Piotrowicz’s idio­lect is a result of a complicated reality on the border between cultures, languages, times, and evidence of changes in social stratification. To summarize the research results, it can be stated that the analysis of 179 words (phrases) from the writer’s individual language shows a world of concepts, thoughts, and values that are characteristic of representatives of the intelligentsia of peasant origin, born in the 1940s. The authors of the paper consider that this study is only a contribution toward determining the peculiarities of the Polish language spoken by the intelligentsia in Lithuania in the 20th century, and that this article does not exhaust all issues of Wojciech Piotrowicz’s idiolect.

Our article tackles the subject of the creation of the adjectives in French language in recent years. The questions that have arisen in the course of the investigation concern the vitality of the category of adjectives compared to other parts of speech, as well as the most frequent ways in which adjective neologisms have emerged in recent years. We also ask if the very significant influence of English language on the newest French lexis is also evident in case of adjectives, and finally whether the analysis of neologisms within this category enables to limit the field of study to Romance languages only.

Preservation and study of dialect vocabulary, that is a source of national language, are the most important tasks of modern dialectology. Agricultural vocabulary as an integral part of every farmer’s vocabulary is valuable material for dialectological researches. The fixation and analysis of the agricultural lexis in the dialects of the Middle Bug area continues to solve the actual problem of modern linguistics. The purpose of the article is vocabulary-semantic analysis of the terms used in poultry farming in the Middle Bug area dialects that function at the border of the SouthWestern and South-Eastern dialects of the Ukrainian language. During the research, general scientific methods of analysis, synthesis, observation and descriptive method were applied. Special linguistic methods included questionnaires, interviews and lingvo-geographic methods. The author’s records and notes done in 74 settlements situated in the west of Kirovohrad region, the northwest of Mykolaiv region, the northeast of Odesa region and the southeast of Vinnytsia region during 2014–2016 are the source of the practical material. The numbering of the villages, urban settlements and towns is used in the article. The full names are listed at the end of the work under the title "The list of the examined settlements and their numbering" to represent the areal distribution of the analyzed dialect units. The examined names and the dialect speech examples are represented by means of the common phonetic transcription for recording the Ukrainian literary and dialect speech (the transcription is presented in the first volume of the Atlas of the Ukrainian Language). The names widespread in Middle Bug area dialects are analyzed. The article expands the empirical base of Ukrainian dialectology, complements the characterization of the Eastern Podilian dialects of the Podillya dialect of the South-western group and the Western Steppe dialects of the Steppe dialect of the South-eastern group of the Ukrainian language. The conclusion is that the fixed names are connected with literary equivalents although they differ in phonetics, vocabulary and semantics. Lexemes, phrases, preposition + noun combinations that illustrate the dialects interaction were described. Indicating the geographic distribution of fixed names and distinguishing names common to both dialects are of great value. Prospects for further research are the continuation of the study of the Ukrainian dialects of the Middle Bug on the material of agricultural vocabulary.

Ущелье реки Проне расположено в среднем Картли, на правом берегу Куры. Включает в себя Дванис-цкали, Алис-цкали, Пцис-цкали и Сурамис-цкали. В соответствии с историческим термином и сегодня эти реки население называет Проне. Для диахронного изучения существующих в этом ущелье топонимов, с точки зрения лингвистики существенными справками располагают приходская книга Руиси или летопись Руиси, составленная Николозом Мровели Орбелишвили или Капланишвили в 1715 году; «Описание царства грузинского (География Грузии)» Вахушти Багратиони (середина XVIII века); «Описание Картли и Кахетии» Иоанна Багратиони (1794-99 годы) и материалы, в разное время записанные и проанализированные грузинскими исследователями (С. Макалатия, Ал. Глонти, М. Коберидзе, Н. Отинашвили) с точки зрения диалектологии. Речь деревень Дванис-цкали и Пцис-цкали относится к шида картлийскому говору, а речь жителей сел Алис-цкали и Сурамис-цкали относится к западно-картлийскому. Топонимы ущелья реки Проне по своему содержанию и образованию разнообразны, существующие средства образования слов подобны грузинскому литературному языку и другим диалектам грузинского языка. Встречаются как субстантивированные, так и атрибутивные субстантивные микро (Накедлареби, Сакидула ...), макро (Дванисцкали, Проне…) и собственные топонимы (Двани, Дирби, Тахтидзири ...), где составляющей частью композита встречаются «цкали»(вода), «тба»(озеро), «геле»(речка), «чала» (роща), «хеви» (ущелье), «чаоби» (болото), «мореви»(водоворот). Детерминантой к топонимам такого типа подтверждаются как общественные, так и собственные имена. Фонетические процессы, характерные для грузинской языковой системы, также встречаются в топонимах ущелья реки Проне. Например: потеря звука, замещение звуков, включение звука… Активно используется суффиксальное (- ет, - ит , - ат, ис-и, ат (а), - aт (a), - та, - еул, - ул , - ур, - ован, -осан, -ин-а, -еб, -мар (нар) и преффиксально-суффиксальное образование (на-ев, са-е, са-ур, са-иа. Различие создает ареал распространения топонимов и частота производного средства. Различные случаи указывают на тенденцию унификации и случаи переключения речевого кода. Встречается территороиальная локализация использования диалектной лексики в топонимии. Проанализированный материал по содержанию и образованию разнообразен. Образование грузинское, не встречаются заимствованные термины. По частоте использования выделяются топонимы с основой на «цкал» и «цкар». Большинство топонимов сложные слова. К топонимам такого типа определителем выступают как нарицательные, так и собственные имена.

The present article evolved from a series of short Romanian translations based on the German version of Adam Fletcher’s book entitled “How to be German in 50 new steps/ Wie man Deutscher wird. In 50 neuen Schritten” (2016). Spanning more than three months, the outcomes of the translating process were rendered concrete with the collective contribution of five Erasmus students[1] at Leipzig University, Germany, all of whom (their teacher included) are native speakers of the Romanian language. Frequently employing a combination of free and formal translation-styles, the team of translators-to-be strove to retain all the meanings, be they propositional or expressive, presupposed or evoked, or those generated by idioms, fixed expressions and non-equivalence in the original text. They provided alternative translations, mostly differing on the levels of lexis, grammar and register, but eventually negotiated the best one, which naturally became the final translated text, as much as possible freed from any traces of “translationese” and suitable for any authentic contemporary sample of Romanian language. [1] I am grateful to Patricia Gheorghe and Ramona Băcănaru (Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest), Andreea Tufeanu (University of Bucharest), Denisa Urs and Paula Heredea (University of Oradea), for their major role throughout the whole process of translation and for all their pertinent observations on the source and target texts.

This article addresses the issue of translation of Nadezhda Teffi’s translation into the Hungarian language. First, the author describes the historical context demonstrating the interest of the Hungarian media of the 1910s–1930s towards Russian emigre life in general and the writers of the Russian literary abroad in particular. The article reviews Hungarian sources mentioning Teffi’s name, e.g. books, scholarly articles, media articles, i.e. short stories by Teffi published in the Hungarian media in her lifetime, such as The Black Iris , The Shop Assistant , The Demonic Woman , The House Painter , The Flyer (in German); The Story of an Eyewitness (in Hungarian). After making general theoretical observations on the translation from Indo-European languages into Hungarian, the author offers a review of major aspects of translation from Russian into Hungarian providing examples on different levels (grammar, stylistics, and cultural realia). The author refers to two pieces of Teffi’s fiction: The Story of an Eyewitness published in a Hungarian periodical soon after its publication in Russian (1933–1934), and The Funny in the Sad published in a modern collection of Russian emigre short stories (2014). Both stories focus on the problem of contrasting perception of the same event by different people and the ways of conveying the event in a newspaper or in a personal conversation. The author examines various levels of the translated texts, i.e. levels of the plot, lexis and grammar, semantic, stylistic, and pragmatic levels pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of both translations. The conclusion of the research concerns different degrees of translation equivalence of the abovementioned pieces.

The article deals with the analysis of the process of forming terminological units by means of lexis de-symbolization. The functioning of this way and its meaning for forming legal terminology is examined here. The lexical base of analysis is formed with the complex of lexis of the German legal terminological system. The objective of the current research is a multifaceted study and description of the semantic foundations of lexical units of law. The requirement to implement this objective has determined the need to solve the following research task: to investigate the process of de-symbolization of words, i. e. the transformation of words into terminological units primarily through the restoration of their semantic foundations (as exemplified by a number of German lexemes). The object of the research is the lexicon of the domain of the legal terminology of the said language. The subject of the research is the formation of legal terms as a result of the process of de-symbolization of the respective words (notions). The material involved in the study was considered from the standpoint of a systematic approach. In order to obtain objective data when determining the semantic foundations of terminological units of law, the descriptive method and the comparative one were used, as well as the method of semantic bundles (series). Examining the process of de-symbolization of lexical units makes it possible to draw the conclusion that the functioning of words in the context of certain semantic parameters determines the change in the content of those words' symbolic foundations. The words are used in a narrower sense, since they have become terms.

Zapożyczanie i kalkowanie jednostek frazeologicznych zajmuje ważne miejsce w procesie wzbogacania współczesnej polskiej i ukraińskiej frazeologii. Zjawisko to wpisuje się w tendencję internacjonalizacji leksyki poszczególnych języków. Zarówno język polski, jak i ukraiński, czyli języki blisko spokrewnione, cechuje w ostatnim okresie wzmożona intensywność procesu kalkowania. W artykule autorzy skupiają się na konfrontacji językowej dokładnych i niedokładnych kalk językowych na obszernym materiale językowym pochodzącym z korpusów narodowych i paralelnych oraz innych źródeł.

This paper deals with expressive lexis, which is understood as the expression of emotions. Through this prism we would like to present a picture of the world which is formed by the opposites, emotional – rational. This picture would also present some examples of speech that is created in the mind as a result of man’s preferences and values. The relation of language and mind, formation of a picture of the world on the basis of both linguistic and extralinguistic foundations, projection of emotions and assessments on language – all of these components are inspiring avenues and this paper trys to enlighten the basis of expressive linguistic inventory of the users of the Slovak language. Keywords: ; ; ; ; ;

Legitimacy of the Qur’an translation to non-Arabic languages has never been disputable nor religiously forbidden act during the initial period of Islam for a great number of researchers. Initiators of the debate about the Qur’an translation and the legitimacy of that act were ‘non- Arabs’ –’agam, who believed that they can only relatively apprehend the divine holy discourse – Qur’an, as they were limited by their own mother tongue. According to historical sources, there were no initiatives to translate Qur’an in our speaking area before the 19th century. The process of the Qur’an translation, however, has started in 1895 with Mico Ljubibratic. In this paper the motifs of Ljibibratic’s work are analysed, as well as the absence of early translations among the adherents of Islam. The paper then reflects on the response to the Ljubibratic’s translation and the influence of his work upon the translation activity among the adherents of Islam. The other part of the paper is based on a contrastive lexical semantic analysis of the translation of Qur’an lexis excerpted from Quranic passages (Surah and Ayahs). The comparison between the Ljubibratic’s translation and the later translations of the Qur’an, as for example the translation from Arabic by Besim Korkut, shows differences on the semantic level, and allow us to observe the development and evolution of the experience in translating the Qur’an in our speaking area.Key words: translation of the Qur’an, Qur’an lexis, contrastive lexical semantic analysis, reception of the Qur’an, Islamic Ulama, Mico Ljubibratic

The article analyzes the functioning of the concept MODE in the modern German-speaking mass-media. The aim of this paper is to explore the peculiarities of the MODE concept in the German language by analysis of the specifics of the fashion vocabulary in the fashion magazines in particular Myself, Glamour, Petra, and Closer. The authors outline the group of lexical units that represent the MODE concept in German, analyze the synonymic series of the MODE lexeme and determine their dominants, suggest system of theme fields and groups of the fashion industry lexis. The linguistic means of verbalization of the MODE concept have been analyzed. The conducted research focuses on the basic models of word formation such as suffixation, word-composition, two-component and multi-component phrases. It has been established that one of the most common ways to replenish the fashion vocabulary are English and French borrowings.

The article emphasizes that borrowed lexis can both enrich the language, expanding and deepening the consciousness, and clog it, narrowing the conscious reflection of the world. The authors specify the criteria for attributing the loanwords as littering or enriching the language and analyze the functioning of certain Ukrainian, Russian and Rusinian lexemes in the Russian and Ukrainian languages. It is noted that the senses of the word are determined not by separate words, but their clusters (families of words, stable phrases, etc.), with individual lexemes being able to indirectly affect the senses of other words without changing their meanings. Different languages and dialects have individual lexemes or loanwords, which, when lost, can affect the dynamics of formation of general concepts in closely related languages. The authors investage the linguistic codes in different languages that function in different ways and can exist for long without people realizing their senses. Having determined the specificity of evoking images (lexical meanings) and emotional connections (senses) in closely related languages, the authors find out that the same universal human values rely on unconscious speech codes and can be transmitted to descendants by various means in different languages: through the etymology of word families in one languages or through set-expressions in others. The researchers substantiate the possibility and necessity of borrowing individual lexemes as elements of sacral language codes of universal human values that could enrich literary languages both in quantity and quality.

The article focuses on the examining language of poetry and style of the time, in particular XIII century. Several poems of poets such as Qol Ghali (XIII century), Durbek (XV century) and Crimean Tatar poet Mahmud Qirimli were examined. Because of them, we made an attempt to show the special features of the texts especially the style of the transitional period texts. Our study draws attention to the fact that the style of the language of poetry of the XIII century has been properly examined, the attention of researchers was focused on distinct poems, which highlights not only by the name, but also by the peculiarity of their language. The study of a language of a certain period helps not only to reveal the peculiarities of a language on the certain territory, but also to highlight the shaping of the literary norm, firstly, as a general, and later as a separate language. In our research, we analyze the language of the period by focusing on three poems. Thanks to such scholars as K. Konuratly, R. Fazyl, A. Kokieva, the work was transliterated from Arabic script to Latin and Cyrillic, and, furthermore, it the poem “Yusuf and Zuleyha” written by Mahmud Qirimli was analyzed. The research of the poem “Qissa-i Yosif” written by Qol Ghali was done by such scientists as N. Khissamov, M. Usmanov, Kh. Usmanov, M. Zakieva, N. Yuzef, M. Gaynutdinov, on the poem “Yusuf and Zuleyha” written by Durbek worked: Bertels, Oybek, V. Zokhidov, I. Sulton, A. Kayumov, B. Velihodjayev, S. Haydarov, N. Mallaev, P. Shamsiyev, Kh. Zaripov, H. Karimov, Kh. Akromov and others. The given topic was a little studied, and the language and style are insufficiently considered by linguists. Just a poem on its own maybe, not enough, but still were studied, however, there are no researches in the comparative aspect. The language of this period is mixed, which means some words are used, affixes of which may belong to any group of Turkic languages, we can see this in the ancient texts and the XIII century works. The vast majority of lexis is Turkic. But still in the work written in the XIV–XV centuries there were some changes in vocabulary, the number of borrowings from Person and Arabic increased. Versification (rhyme, meter, etc.) was gradually getting under the Arabic-Persian influence.

The research into methods used in translating English non-equivalent lexis is topical because of active formation of market relations and the organization of new structures in Ukraine along with new business practices, put into place during the COVID-19 health crisis, which caused a gap between the existing terms inherent in the Ukraine’s economy and new categories and concepts. Both foreign and domestic authors are increasingly studying theoretical and practical problems of translation of English non-equivalent economic lexis. However, due to the instability of the corpus of Ukrainian economic terminology and continual influx of non-equivalent lexis, this issue calls for a further thorough research.

The study of political discourse characteristics specific to national cultures is becoming one of the most popular fields of academic and practice-oriented research across political science, history, psychology, sociology, political discourse philosophy and, of course, linguistics. The article studies the specific national and cultural characteristics of German political discourse, focusing on the public speeches of CDU and CSU chairpersons (A. Kramp-Karrenbauer and M. Soder respectively) during the Political Ash Wednesday meetings in 2019. “Political Ash Wednesday” (politischer Aschermittwoch) is a traditional event in German politics, at which reacting to recent political events and verbally attacking one’s political opponents are quite typical. Speeches held during Political Ash Wednesdays are usually relatively expressive and are marked with cultural specificity. The research aims to find out and classify culture-specific lexical items and define the key topics of the speeches according to these speakers. The authors used the following methods: semantic analysis, contextual analysis, statistical analysis, semantic field analysis, and survey techniques. By using these methods to approach vocabulary through semantics and context, speakers’ lexical specifics could be chosen, which were then divided into culturally specific categories, “background items” which require cultural knowledge, and gender-specific items. Statistical analysis showed that Kramp-Karrenbauer and Soder mostly brought up similar topics in their speeches, but with notable differences: both speakers focused on domestic politics, but Soder also touched upon local Bavarian issues. Both speakers spoke about challenges including digitalization, energy transition, ecology, the transformation of the German political landscape, and internal governmental problems. Still, only Soder paid attention to the problem of integration of refugees, whereas only Kramp-Karrenbauer spoke on gender and social politics. Both chairpersons criticized their political opponents. There is not much difference in these speeches regarding foreign policy: both politicians referred to the European Parliamentary election and security issues. The authors conclude that comprehensive study of culturespecific lexis in an extralinguistic context could help reveal specific features of political discourse.