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The paper deals with the problem of poor acquisition of English nominal compounds in EFL university students who are native speakers of Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS). The problem was tackled by a brief comparison of noun morphology and declension suffixes in English and BCS, the introduction of negative transfer in the process of foreign language acquisition, and the analysis of BCS translation equivalents. The discussion revealed that the productivity of compounding largely depends on the complexity of noun morphology. Put simply, the more complex noun morphology is, the less productive compounding will be. In addition, the analysis of the translation equivalents also highlighted that a vast majority of problems related to poor acquisition of English nominal compounds stems from the fact that EFL learners usually translate L1 phrases word-forword into L2. Finally, it was pointed out that teaching English nominal compounds to EFL learners could be improved by tailored-made instructions provided in L1.

The alternations k~c, g~z, and x~s occurring before i in Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian (BCS) noun declension stem from the Second Palatalization of Velars, but are no longer phonologically conditioned. In the dative-locative singular of nouns with nominative in -a, they are favored or hindered by a combination of morphological criteria. In the dative-instrumental-locative plural of masculine nouns, they are almost exceptionless. In the same three cases of neuter nouns they occur more when the noun is directly after a preposition, less when other words intervene between the preposition and the noun, a phenomenon that has not previously been remarked in the literature. We exemplify it with the noun pazuho ‘armpit’.

The article analyzes the inflectional paradigm of Ukrainian anthroponyms - feminine names, which are decimated according to the pattern of the I declination of a firm group because in the process of inflection Ukrainian anthroponyms show a number of case features to designate their feminine names that distinguish them from other nouns. It defines relevant factors for highlighting the morphological paradigms of the studied anthropolexems, such as the nominal type of declination; tribal affiliation (labelling category of feminine gender); attribution to the category of human beings; one-type accentuation (fixed emphasis on the basis, movable emphasis or on the basis of the singular and on inflection of the plural, or on the basis of the singular and parallel of the plural - on inflection (except genitive and accusative) and on the basis); the formation of complete paradigms; common endings in case forms; doublet forms in the accusative plural form (zero and -и); morphological phenomena that arise at the base of lexemes during inflection; the alternation of hard and soft phonemes, pharyngeal and lingual with soft tooth phonemes, vowel phoneme /о/ and /е/ with zero phoneme; it analyzes case inflections of masculine names of II declination of the firm group in the singular form (-а in the nominative case, -u in the genitive case, -і in the dative case, -у in the accusative case, -ою in the instrumental case, -і in the prepositional case, -о in the vocal case) and in the plural form (-и in the nominative case, zero in the genitive case, -ам in the dative case, zero (*-и) in the accusative case, -ами in the instrumental case, -ах in the prepositional case, -и in the vocative case); it describes the system of simple paradigmatic classes ofproper feminine names of I declination. The morphological paradigm of anthroponyms for the designation of proper masculine and feminine names requires a detailed study and systematic description, taking into account modern approaches.

This paper discusses grammatical gender in Norwegian by bringing together data from first language acquisition, Norwegian heritage language, and dialect change. In all these contexts, gender is often claimed to be a vulnerable category, arguably due to the relative non-transparency of gender assignment. Furthermore, the feminine gender is in the process of being lost in many Norwegian dialects, as feminine agreement forms (for example, the indefinite article) are merged with the masculine. The definite suffix, in contrast, is quite stable, as it is acquired early and does not undergo attrition/change. We argue that the combined data provide evidence that gender and declension class are separate phenomena, and we outline a possible formal analysis to account for the findings.*

This paper is about the relation between natural and grammatical gender in Greek and the ways in which the twain are matched or mismatched. A variety of topics is discussed, including the relation between grammatical gender and declension, the resolution of gender clashes in epicene nouns and the marking of natural gender in common nouns. Particular attention is given to the gendering of neuter diminutives with male or female referents. Age and particular aspects of “maleness” or “femaleness” are shown to be major determinants in triggering male or female instead of neuter agreement patterns, especially on anaphoric pronouns, but occasionally also on other word classes such as predicative adjectives and participles.

يتناول البحث المعنى الدلالي النحوي لسورة الشمس بإبراز بعض الظواهر النحوية في السورة کتکرار القسم, و(ال) في المقسم به و في باقي السورة والدلالة النحوية لها, والتأنيث و التذکير وتتابع ذلک بشکل مقصود لدلالة معينة, و تتبع وتتبع إعراب مفردات السورة مما يظهر اتساق النص و دلالة الضبط. الکلمات المفتاحية: اللغة العربية, النحو العربي, الظواهر النحوية, المعنى الدلالي. Semantic grammar in the Sun's Sura (al-shams) Analytical study Rehan Abdel Mohsen Mohamad Mansur Professor of linguistics (grammar and declension) King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia Faculty of Science and Literature, Khamis Mushayt Email: Rehammansour123@gmail.com Abstract : The research deals with the semantic meaning of the Sun's orbiting by highlighting some of the Grammatical manifestations in the orbiting, such as the replication of the oth, (the) in its divider and in the rest of its orbiting and Grammatical Semantic significance, and feminism and reminder and follow this intentionally for a particular significance. And follow the words of the word " Sura ", which shows the consistency of the text and the significance of the adjustment Key words: Arabic, Arabic grammar, Grammatical manifestations, and Semantic meaning

Cet article examine en détail la notion d’état dans le cadre des déclinaisons des noms et adjec-tifs de l’arabe classique. Certaines des propriétés de celles-ci peuvent se visualiser grâce aux présentations structurées des déclinaisons en fonction des cas et des états ; nous montrons que ces présentations mènent à identifier un bon ordre pour les cas et pour les états. Nous établis-sons une définition précise des états, étudions les différentes perspectives selon lesquelles l’état peut être envisagé, exposons les avantages de son utilisation en grammaire arabe et sug-gérons une terminologie plus claire et plus simple que celles existantes, en mettant l’accent sur l’utilité d’une distinction nette entre les états et la définitude. Nous mettons aussi en évi-dence la symétrie entre les notions d’état et de cas. Tout ceci se fait, autant que possible, en lien avec les langues sémitiques en général. Nous montrons enfin que la cohérence du sys-tème formé par les cas et les états se maintient en arabe (à une exception près) lorsque l’on prend en compte les règles marginales de grammaire qui sont habituellement omises quand on envisage ce système.

This article deals with Icelandic polysyllabic nouns of Greek-Latin origin that end in –ík, for example epík ‘epic’, keramík ‘ceramic’, and klassík ‘classic’. The oldest loan words were borrowed from Danish via German, but in recent decades they have most likely entered Icelandic through English. The main research question in this article concerns declension: how are these nouns declined in the genitive form? As feminine nouns, the words in question follow the same pattern as the monosyllabic, feminine noun vík. Thus, as vík, polysyllabic -ík nouns have the ending -ur in genitive singular. However, the ending -ar is also possible in many instances. In this paper, it is argued that the -ík ending has triggered the gender and consequently the declension of the words in question. Finally, the paper addresses the question whether -ík should be understood as an ending or as a part of the stem. As the ending -ík is not productive in the formation of new Icelandic words it is concluded that the latter is more likely.

1968 saw the publication of Józefa Kobylińska’s monograph entitled Rozwój form dopełniacza liczby pojedynczej rzeczowników rodzaju męskiego w języku polskim [The development of the forms of the genitive singular of masculine nouns in the Polish language]. Whoever intends to write about the Polish masculine genitive singular cannot neglect this publication, especially so because the selection of the endings -a and -u still poses a problem for modern Poles. The author of the article intends to supplement the fragments of the monograph which refer to the sources of the vacillations in the selection of endings. She puts forward a thesis that the source of the ending -u in the genitive was not only the 2nd declension but also the forms of the dative of the 1st declension. The author continues to ask, why the ending -a was preserved by animate nouns. It turns out that among all the functions of the genitive (genetivus qualitatis, genetivus partitivus, genetivus absolutus) Saxon genitive was the prevailing one; a noun in the genitive indicated the possessor, and the latter was a person, less frequently an animal. Possessive form expressed by the dative (cf. Bogu rodzica) was not pure, it frequently connoted an existential function.

This study investigated how speakers of Estonian as L1 with varying degree of proficiency in English judge grammaticality of bilingual constructionsEnglish adjective+Estonian nounfrom the point of view of adjective agreement. Estonian is rich in inflectional morphology, and adjectives agree with nouns in case and number. The empirical evidence from English-Estonian bilingual speech shows that agreement is not always the case even when an English adjective fits into Estonian declension system. It is hypothesized that the higher proficiency in/exposure to English is, the higher is the acceptability of bilingual adjective phrases, and (non-)agreement does not play a role. To test this, an experiment was designed where the test corpus of 108 sentences consisted of real and constructed examples, both in agreement and non-agreement condition. Real sentences came from fashion and beauty blogs and vlogs. The test was administered online and the participants were asked to rate adjective acceptability. The hypothesis was confirmed: increased proficiency in English, together with younger age, had a positive correlation with acceptability of all adjective types, independent of adjective (non-)agreement. Residence and birthplace had a small effect on acceptability of some adjective types. Whether sentences were real or constructed, had only a minor effect. Male participants tended to assess real sentences lower, probably because of the topics typical for female blogs. Monosyllabic consonant-ending adjectives were exceptional, as their assessment did not depend on any factor. All in all, the study demonstrated that grammaticality judgment among the native speakers of the same L1 differs because of different degrees of bilingualism, and structural factors, such as compatibility with Estonian declension system, are not decisive. Thus, it is not clear what an ideal native speaker is.

Summary Translators, linguists and translation researchers often have to deal with subtle and sometimes complex syntactical aspects involved in translation. Properly conveying the structure and rhythm of a sentence or text in another language is a difficult task that requires a good understanding of syntactical aspects of both the source and the target language. The morphology of Lithuanian verbs and nouns, and specially its system of declensions and cases, without any doubt facilitates a relatively flexible word order. Many linguists also agree that word order in the Spanish sentence is also freer than in French, English or other modern languages. It has often been said that Spanish has the most flexible word order of all Romance languages. However, Spanish word order is by no means as free as in Lithuanian. A comparative study of Lithuanian texts and their translation into Spanish allows a better understanding of the syntactical differences between both languages. This article examines a case of syntactical inversion in Lithuanian: the displacement of the direct object and its location at the beginning of the sentence, and the translation of such sentences into Spanish. In Spanish the direct object usually follows the verb, except in the cases when that function is carried out by pronouns. In order to displace a direct object to the beginning of the sentence, Spanish syntactical structures should be used. In this article two stylistically different Lithuanian texts will be compared with their Spanish translation so as to identify the linguistic means used in each case. A comparative analysis of different types of texts is useful to reveal the Spanish syntactical structures chosen by the translators as well as certain tendencies in each specific context.

Šiaurinių panevėžiškių patarmės daiktavardžio morfologinio proceso natūralumo išsamus tyrimas ir išvados pirmą kartą publikuotos autorės daktaro disertacijoje (Kurkauskienė, 2018, 102–117). Siekiant platesnės patarmės tyrimų sklaidos straipsnyje glaustai ir aiškiai pateikiamas koncentruotas disertacijoje aprašytas tyrimas. Straipsnyje atlikti tik nežymūs pakeitimai. Straipsnyje keliamas tikslas – remiantis natūraliosios morfologijos teorijos principais įvertinti ir glaustai aprašyti konstrukcinį linksnių formų ikoniškumą, daiktavardžio formų (vertikalųjį) ir galūnių (horizontalųjį) sinkretizmą. Fleksinių formų paradigmų lyginimas parodė, kad šiaurinių panevėžiškių patarmėje, palyginti su bendrine kalba, sinkretizuotų linksnių, neikoniškų, kontraikoniškų formų yra gerokai daugiau. Dėl to atsiranda tendencija nuo trijų (vyriškojo, moteriškojo ir mišriojo) linksniavimo tipų pereiti į du (vyriškąjį ir moteriškąjį) linksniavimo tipus. In the Northern Panevėžiškiai subdialect, the forms, which are maximally or minimally iconic in the subdialect under analysis, dominate in the plural paradigms of all stems. The dative and instrumental are maximally iconic in the masculine plural declension (a, a2, u stems) paradigm, whereas in the case of the feminine declension (ā, ē stems), all the cases in the plural, with the exception of the genitive, are maximally iconic. Other cases of the plural paradigm of these declension types are minimally iconic (the nominative and genitive in the masculine declension and only the genitive in the feminine declension) or non-iconic at all (only the genitive plural of the masculine declension type falls into this category). The dative plural and the instrumental plural of the mixed declension if inflectional class are maximally iconic; the genitive case is counter-iconic and the remaining nominative and accusative cases are non-iconic at all. In the Northern Panevėžiškiai subdialect if stem nouns of barytonic accentuation have most of syncretic cases (seven singular case forms have four different endings, while six plural case forms have three different endings). The a2, ā, ā and ē stem nouns have a comparatively high number of syncretic singular forms (seven singular case forms each have four different endings). a and u stems stand out from others by their lowest number of syncretic forms (both in the singular and plural paradigms). In summary, the subdialect of Northern Panevėžiškiai is dominated by three declension types: masculine (a, a2, u stem nouns), feminine (ā, ā, ē stem nouns) and mixed (im, if, Cm, Cf stem nouns). The comparison of the paradigms of inflectional forms has shown that compared to the standard language, there are far more syncretised cases, non-iconic, and counter-iconic forms in the Northern Panevėžiškiai subdialect. It gives rise to the tendency of shifting from three (masculine, feminine and mixed) to two (masculine and feminine) declension types.

The paper systematically and analytically delves into conspicuous accent characteristics of the declension of nouns in the Ijekavian West-Serbian speeches (less commonly of lexical categories and individual examples). The demonstrated instances (mainly of prosodic declensional relations) are examined from multiple perspectives: lexical productivity of accent types, areal and/or systemic limitations, the level of accordance with exemplary (Vuk?s or Danicic?s) accent patterns, the nature of the correlations with appropriate circumstances in kindred speeches. On the basis of the chosen corpus and analytical viewpoints, we have confirmed the following: the special status and inherent incompatibility of West-Serbian Ijekavian complex somewhat modifi es classic prosodic models. Some of Danicic?s alterations are missing (e.g. svekar-svekra type), some are areally limited (e.g. starac-starca type), some are lexically reduced (e.g. rod-roda type). Nevertheless, the observed differences are dialectally inevitable and therefore cannot be said to undermine the organic unity of the West-Serbian Ijekavian complex with the other segments of the vast and extensive East-Herzegovinian dialect.

Geographical Names of the Hutsul Region in the First Volume of the Novel “On the High Uplands” by S. Vincenz (In Light of S. Hrabec’s Research) The aim of the paper is to discuss the linguistic and onymic properties of the geographical names of the Hutsul region (Гуцульщина, Ukraine) used by Stanislaw Vincenz in the first volume (“Prawda starowieku”) of his tetralogy “Na wysokiej poloninie” (“On the High Uplands”). The volume was first published in 1936. The second edition appeared in 1980 in Poland and was the one which had the greatest impact on the reception of the Vincenz’s work in the Polish readership after WW2. This is why the 1980 edition has been used as the source of analysed toponymic material. The main finding is that the analysed toponymy is of heterogeneous and (to a certain extent) hybrid nature, combining Polish, Ukrainian, and dialectal Hucul linguistic properties, which perfectly coincides with general tendency in the use of geographical names of the Hucul region in texts produced in the Polish language from the mid-19th century. The names used by Vincenz in the book written in the period 1930–1936 seem to faithfully reflect some specific characteristics of Hutsul toponymy in the 1930s (as discussed by the linguist Stefan Hrabec in his dissertation). Finally, some instances of toponyms’ declension present in “Prawda starowieku” are discussed together with some examples of (partially folk) etymologies codified by Vincenz in his work.

In this paper, we investigate an ongoing change in the grammatical gender system of Norwegian. Previous research has shown that the feminine form of the indefinite article is quickly disappearing from several dialects, which has led to claims that the feminine gender is being lost from the language. We have carried out a study of the status of the feminine in possessives across five age groups of speakers of the Tromsø dialect. Our findings show that the prenominal possessives are affected by the change to the same extent as the indefinite article, while forms that have been argued not to be exponents of gender (the definite suffix and the postnominal possessive) are generally unaffected.

The noun lexica of many natural languages are divided into several declension classes with characteristic morphological properties. Class membership is far from deterministic, but the phonological form of a noun and/or its meaning can often provide imperfect clues. Here, we investigate the strength of those clues. More specifically, we operationalize this by measuring how much information, in bits, we can glean about declension class from knowing the form and/or meaning of nouns. We know that form and meaning are often also indicative of grammatical gender—which, as we quantitatively verify, can itself share information with declension class—so we also control for gender. We find for two Indo-European languages (Czech and German) that form and meaning respectively share significant amounts of information with class (and contribute additional information above and beyond gender). The three-way interaction between class, form, and meaning (given gender) is also significant. Our study is important for two reasons: First, we introduce a new method that provides additional quantitative support for a classic linguistic finding that form and meaning are relevant for the classification of nouns into declensions. Secondly, we show not only that individual declensions classes vary in the strength of their clues within a language, but also that these variations themselves vary across languages., Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, ISBN:978-1-952148-25-5

The article concerns the issue of linguistic awareness among students who attend the program for the prospective teachers of Polish as a foreign language at the Faculty of Philology at the University of Lodz. In the text, we present and comment on the results of a survey study among 52 students. The survey consisted of questions on basic issues of functional grammar of the Polish language in the area of declension, which are presented to learners of Polish as a foreign language. The analysis led to the proposal to introduce the notion of didactic metalinguistic awareness, related to the peculiar character of foreign language teaching, which would complement the metalinguistic awareness. Artykuł porusza zagadnienie świadomości lingwistycznej studentów – słuchaczy specjalizacji glottodydaktycznej na Wydziale Filologicznym Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. W tekście zostały przedstawione i omówione wyniki analizy badania ankietowego przeprowadzonego w grupie 52 studentów. W kwestionariuszu umieszczono pytania dotyczące podstawowych problemów z gramatyki funkcjonalnej języka polskiego z zakresu fleksji imiennej, które omawiane są przez nauczyciela języka polskiego jako obcego podczas zajęć z cudzoziemcami. Analiza materiału badawczego zaowocowała propozycją wprowadzenia pojęcia glottodadaktycznej świadomości lingwistycznej, związanej ze specyfiką pracy nauczyciela języka obcego, będącej dopełnieniem świadomości lingwistycznej.

The impact of Turkish on Romani is limited, for the most part, to those dialects spoken on the territory of the former Ottoman Empire, and is similar to that found in the other Balkan languages. In this sense, Romani participates in the convergent language contact that produced the Balkan Sprachbund (linguistic area). Some specific features distinguish the Romani dialects of the Balkans. Romani has not adopted Turkish derivational morphemes to the same extent as the other Balkan languages. In some dialects, the impact of Turkish on verbal morphology and conjugation is greater. In those dialects with Turkish conjugation, the compartmentalization can be compared to that found in oikoclitic versus xenoclitic declension in most dialects.

The article is dedicated to the history of «Russkaya grammatika» («Russian Grammar») by A.L. Shljocer written for foreigners in 1764 in German. The grammar wasn’t finished and stayed unknown for a long time though it could be the useful guidebook on Russian language. One of the reasons was the negative response of M.V. Lomonosov. The article aim is to give the description of «Russkaya grammatika» («Russian Grammar») origin and prove its value as the grammar guidebook. The reasons of the negative response of M.V. Lomonosov of A.L. Shljocer’s work are covered in the article. The statements taken by other authors from Shljocer’s grammar book and influenced on Russian language grammar system were determined. Particularly this book in part of “nouns” form the basis of training «Russkaya grammatika » («Russian Grammar») by N.I. Grech.

Spelling variants are common in Latin anatomical terms. Some of these variants cause confusion with respect to the meaning of the word by altering the base of the word to resemble a different word base. Thus these variants should be considered errors, comparable to errors in declension of nouns and adjectives, and errors in the formation of neologisms. Use of correct Latin words in Latin anatomical terms should increase the rigor, stability, and universality of the nomenclature. Clin. Anat. 31:77-80, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The so-called Neolatin languages o Romanic ones are the result of a development process, that goes from vulgar Latin or spoken Latin until it evolved into independent languages. This process started at the falling of the Roman Empire, afterward the spoken Latin of the former Roman provinces begun to acquire its own features, far away from a unique political center. In this manner were emerging French, Italian and Spanish, among other Neolatin languages.Even though we talk about Neolatin languages as a new linguistic phenomenon, it is still remarkable in them a deep track of mother language. This mark goes beyond lexical and phonetic aspects. This track is remarkable in the substantive too, especially in semantic terms, and in its morphology as well. In spite of that Spanish lost the nominal Latin flexion, in the singular and plural form of the substantive endure the antique form of accusative Latin noun, either in singular or in plural. And in spite of what has been said, we must state that the main track of Latin morphology is to be found in the morphology of the Spanish verb.AKADEMOS, Year 10, Vol. 2, No 27, July-December 2016: 9-28

There is a general lack of web-based tools for morphologically complex dead/old languages. Reading texts in such languages even with dictionaries is quite challenging. It is difficult to identify the lemma of a word form occurring in texts, which one could look up in a dictionary. The need for additional grammatical information about a word (classes of declension, conjugation, etc.) poses another problem. The Lexicographic Centre at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University (TSU) has embarked on creating a fully digitalized, web-based chrestomathy of Gothic and Anglo-Saxon texts with dictionaries and grammatical paradigms integrated in it, which would facilitate the study of these linguistically important languages. Each word of the digital versions of Gothic and Anglo-Saxon texts is hyperlinked to the corresponding headword from the dictionary. The dictionary entry itself, in addition to the meaning of the word, provides via another hyperlink all necessary information concerning the morphological class and inflectional patterns of the word in question. The paper describes the structure of the Chrestomathy and its modus operandi ; analyses the dictionary component of the online resource and some lexicographic solutions; discusses lexicological and technical aspects of the online resource, etc. The method applied in the Chrestomathy can be successfully used in developing similar resources for extant, morphologically complex languages characterized with the abundance of inflectional and suppletive forms, such as Hungarian, Turkish, Russian, German, Georgian and many others.

The paper is an attempt of analyse of the local adverbs that represent static і dynamic localization – a location of the object (relative to another object). The local adverbs are modelled [в/у + NAсc], [в/у + NLoc], [з + NGen], [на + NLoc], [на + NAсc], [під + NAсc], namely: в+гору, в+горі, з+гори, на+гору, на+горі, під+гору.More than 200 micro-contexts of the function of the adverbs in the South-Western dialects of Ukrainian language are analysed. The focus primarily lies on the semantic aspect.The purpose of the research is to analyse the peculiarities of the structure and semantics of the local adverbs of static and dynamic localization, on the example of the derivatives -гор(a) to identify the patterns of determining the part-of-speech status of the linguistic units (adverbs or prepositional-nominal construction), formed by these models. The adverbs (or prepositional-nominal constructions) represented the spatial opposition («upper part» – «lower part»).The sources of research are dialect dictionaries, card indices and texts, regional linguistic atlases, records of the dialectal speech by the author, and some other researchers, ethnographic and dialectal materials from XIX c. until now (Yakiv Holovats’kyj, Volodymyr Shukhevych, Volodymyr Hnatiuk, Antin Onyshchyk, Ivan Verchrats’kyj, Mykhajlo Zubryts’kyj, Zenon Kuzelia, Ilarion Svientsits’kyj, Mykola Hrycak and others).The semantics of adverbs and prepositional-nominal construction often coincides. This can be explained by the fact that semantic components united around the core component of the semantics of the basic word гора – ‘mountain’, ‘mountainous areas’, ‘hill’, as follows: ‘high in the mountains’, ‘on the mountain, on the top of the mountains’, ‘on the hill’ (a static localization); ‘towards the top of the mountain; to the mountain’, ‘in the direction of the top of the mountain (the hill)’, ‘downhill’ (a dynamic localization). It explains the relevance of the study.Micro- and macrocontexts are used to define semantics and grammar of words, «live» contexts. The analysis of derivatives, recorded in dialectological sources, also enabled to identify specific dialectal phonetic features at different levels of speech.Important are the linguistic factors (dependent words of the adjective-type declension (із гори високої, на тій горі, з другой горы), a repeat of derivatives (на горі, на горойці), toponyms and micro toponyms (на горi Мaківці, на гору на Городлівску), macrocontexts) and extralinguistic (recording location, background knowledge).

This paper aims to provide the contribution of the linguist Fatmir Agalliu, Professor of Albanian Language at Luigj Gurakuqi University in Shkodra and then at the Faculty of History and Philology at the University of Tirana. Fatmir Agalliu belongs to the first generation of Albanian linguists that were educated inside the country that have given important support in the study of Albanian Language. An important and big value case is also his contribution on the determination of the number of cases in Albanian Language. In the determination of the number and the classification of cases of a language, we should consider specific features of that language and we should not apply a case system of another language mechanically. There are two different aspects in Albanian declension, definite and indefinite aspect. That means that case forms are doubled. Therefore, instead of having two nominative forms, one for singular and one for plural, we have four forms in fact, two for singular (definite and indefinite) and two for plural (definite and indefinite). Fatmir Agalliu claims that by treating case as a grammatical category we need to take into consideration the form, and the content.

The Romanian language is the representative of the Latin language spoken continuously from the time of the Roman rule in the Eastern Roman Empire until today. Latin has changed, has evolved under the influence of the native populations of Dacia and the Balkan Peninsula or of the populations coming from other regions and settled in the Danube regions. All these changes are reflected in texts showing that vulgar or spoken Latin underlying the Romanian language is not different from the Latin spoken in other Roman provinces. The evolution of Latin is reflected in all areas of grammar, from the phonological system to the morphological and syntactic system. In this paper, we will focus on the influences of Latin and Slavic languages on noun inflection in Romanian; we will also focus on the reversed situation, namely on how the particularities of the Romanian language influenced, in turn, Slavic languages such as Bulgarian. Therefore, we will address two linguistic systems that are different, but which are interlinked and mutually influenced. We will refer to analytical declension, synthetic declension, articulated and non-articulated forms of nouns, and prepositions, in a desire to present a few particularities of the two linguistic systems that explain how Latin and Slavic influences are reflected in noun inflection in contemporary Romanian.

It is generally accepted that the frequency of words (as elements of a lexicon) in texts follows Zipf’s Law. Our previous research has shown that Zipf’s Law also holds quite well for the morphological pattern distribution over the lexicon. An interesting question arises: If the text frequency is relatively high for words following morphological patterns with low lexicon frequency, then what does the text frequency distribution of the patterns look like? We have made an experiment to get some idea of this distribution by combining a morphological dictionary of Czech words with the data available in the Frequency Dictionary of Czech, containing 50,000 of the most frequent Czech words.

Linearization of NP in simple sentences in Macedonian compared with other Slavic languagesThis article focuses on the possible marked variants of the unmarked word order SVO (Subject, Verb, Object) in simple sentences in Macedonian (as an analytic language) compared with simple sentences in the predominant part of the Slavic languages (with synthetic declension).It also presents theories used as a basis for the analysis of the order of sentence components (represented by NPs), as well as methods applied in course of the collection and analysis of the relevant examples.

In this paper, we explore the results of a short-term concept-based pedagogical intervention on the learning of declension as a meaning-making resource among US university learners of German. The pedagogical approached derived its principles from Vygotskian sociocultural psychology, namely the role of explicit, scientific (i.e., abstract and holistic) concepts in promoting development. The pedagogical approach centered on the teaching of the concept of focus, which was supported with lessons on word movement and its functions in German in comparison to English, as well as the role of morphology (i.e., declension) in assigning roles to determiner phrases in German. Results show that students made significant gains in their ability to interpret the roles of determiner phrases in German sentences by attending to morphology, and they began to attempt to mark determiner phrases at a significantly higher rate following the intervention in a writing task. We discuss the results in relation to pedagogical and the...

This paper presents an Arabic-compliant part-of-speech (POS) tagging scheme based on using atomic tag markers that are grouped together using brackets. This scheme promotes the speedy production of annotations while preserving the richness of resultant annotations. The proposed scheme is comprised of two main elements, a new tokenization approach and a custom tool that enables the semi-automatic implementation of this scheme. The proposed model can serve in many scenarios where the user is in a need for better Arabic support and more control over the Part-of-Speech tagging process. This scheme was used to annotate sample narratives and it demonstrated capability and adaptability while addressing the various distinguishing features of Arabic language including its unique declension system. It also sets new baselines that are prospect for further exploration by future efforts.

The paper presents examples of inflection class reinforcement, where an inflection class becomes more different from its neighbours than it was. This is a manifestation of a diachronic tendency for more overt marking, similar to Kuryłowicz’ first law for analogy. It is also a manifestation of redundancy, which is characteristic of inflection. If inflection classes do not serve any purpose (as claimed by, for example, Wurzel 1986 ), it would seem strange that they should be strengthened. So, classes are not mere junk; reinforcement of class distinctions (polarisation) testifies to the autonomy of morphology (cf., for example, Aronoff 1994 , Carstairs-McCarthy 2010 , Maiden 2011 ).A change in Swedish conjugation is argued to be reinforcement. We consider a case where declension wins over gender in Norwegian, the opposite of what has been claimed to be the norm for that language. That case is also reinforcement. I suggest that reinforcement may be thought of as a kind of simplification. That also fits with the geographical distribution of a specific change. The paper also presents some evidence that a fairly ‘concrete’ definition of inflection classes can sometimes be useful.Inflection classes often latch on to extra-morphological properties in the cases examined, as claimed by Natural Morphology ( Wurzel 1984 ). Yet it is problematic for Wurzel that inflection classes (mere ‘ballast’, in his view, Wurzel 1986 : 76) should be strengthened. The finding is, however, expected if ‘[…] autonomously morphological structure […] can be a dynamic, self-reinforcing factor in morphological change’ ( Maiden 2005 : 168).

El presente estudio trata de formular en forma clara las nociones sintácticas necesarias para poder comprender e interpretar textos clásicos latinos, filosóficos, históricos o literarios, indispensables en los estudios universitarios humanísticos. El estudio de la lengua latina supone la conjunción de los dos aspectos esenciales del lenguaje: su morfología (en el caso de la lengua latina, con sus declinaciones nominales, adjetivales y pronominales, así como los paradigmas de las conjugaciones verbales) y la sintaxis, es decir, las reglas características de su estructura, sus giros y sus posibilidades. En este estudio obviamos lo referente a las reglas morfológicas por considerarlas ya conocidas, y formulamos las combinaciones sintácticas de las cuatro categorías gramaticales esenciales: sustantivo, adjetivo, verbo y adverbio. Profundizamos en la función peculiar de cada una de ellas, así como sobre otras modalidades sintácticas que pueden también cumplir dichas funciones.

This paper aims to analyse the Possive-Demonstrative construction in Ole English under the minimalist perspective and examines its implications on the development of the definite article. Instead of Chomsky"s (2000, 2001) idea of Move, its driving force is attributed to a uF in the moving element. The possessive in the construction is assumed to carry the uF [αstrong] associated with strong declension and undergo movement to go beyond the scope of the definite D. The distal demonstrative, on the other hand, suffers the loss of deictic and anaphoric properties and reduces to a head selecting an adjective complement. Its deficiency is implemented as the absence of the uF [αstrong]. In terms of grammaticalization, the weakening of the distal demonstrative testifies the transition stage before the completion of its shift into the definite article in Early Middle English.

The aim of this exploratory study is to examine bilingual Russian–Hebrew-speaking children’s performance on the complex Case System in Russian. The speech of six early sequential bilinguals and three simultaneous bilinguals is analyzed for the quality and quantity of errors. Monolingual data came from two sources. The first source was the error rate of case and number by two normally developing monolingual Russian-speaking children, collected recently in the former Soviet Union. The second source was qualitative reports on error types made by monolingual children in the course of Case System acquisition. The following research questions were examined: (i) Are there differences between bilingual children and age-matched monolingual Russian-speaking children in Russian Case System acquisition? (ii) Are there differences between simultaneous and early sequential bilinguals in Russian Case System acquisition? Speech of bilingual children was recorded individually and monthly over a seven-month period, 20 minutes per month per child. Error analysis of the bilingual speech was conducted regarding the following target variables: noun oblique cases (Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Instrumental, and Prepositional), noun number (singular and plural), and the three declensions. The results show quantitative differences between simultaneous bilinguals, early sequential bilinguals, and monolinguals in Russian Case System acquisition.

This article presents a corpus study of the acquisition of grammatical gender in Norwegian in two monolingual and two bilingual Norwegian-English children. Gender in Norwegian is expressed as agreement between the noun and other targets such as determiners and adjectives, while definiteness and plurality are expressed as suffixes on the noun itself, i.e. as part of the declension. Furthermore, the gender system is characterized by relatively opaque gender assignment, suggesting that there may be a delay in the acquisition process compared to languages with more transparent systems. Our results show that, while the acquisition of suffixed forms is unproblematic, the children experience considerable problems with gender agreement. Moreover, there is generally no qualitative difference between the monolingual and bilingual children. These findings are discussed in relation to a number of issues: gender vs. declension class, the role of frequency, knowledge of the concept of gender, and monolingual vs. bilingual acquisition.

Contemporary German is known for its complex system of linking ele- ments. They not only show different degrees of productivity (between unproduc- tive -es- and very productive -s-), but also exhibit functional diversity, with some of them even allowing plural interpretation, e.g. -er -i nVolk+er+kunde 'ethnology' vs. Volk +s+kunde 'folklore'. In this paper, we argue that this is due to the com- plex historical development from two different sources. The first layer of linking elements, which arose out of Germanic primary suffixes, was reduced to one mem- ber, the "older" linking -e-, already in Old High German (e.g. in NHG Tag+e+werk 'daily task'). The current functional diversity of the linking elements is primarily due to the later evolution out of inflectional endings. The dissociation from the second source has included a gradual change of the assignment rules from lexical (gender, declension class) to prosodic (formal) level. Thus, the current distribution of the most developed linking -s- is the most formalized one, as it can be directly deduced from the prosodic form of the first constituent. The development of the second layer of linking elements resembles the process of grammaticalization. However, linking ele- ments form part of word formation and therefore are not the typical result of gram- maticalization.

This paper reports on the grammatical and programmatical production aspects of the Hebrewer, a cross-platform web-based reference work in the form of a Hebrew inflection generator. The Hebrewer, a Java applet/servlet combination, is currently capable of generating 2,500 nouns in full declension and 500 verbs in full conjugation, displaying the results in vocalized Hebrew and allowing users to print the inflection charts.

Scholars often discuss marine commodities within the framework of man-made declension; indeed there are several examples in this volume. This article expands the scope of marine environment...

The epigraphic material from the region of Naissus, in spite of its relative scarcity and poor state of preservation, offers valuable examples of Vulgar Latin usage. Interesting phenomena include an instance of the imperial name Pertinax in the form Pertenax, which may be due to a vulgar reinterpretation of the name (?Very Tough?, cf. Constans, Valens, sim.) and may imply rhizotony (Pert?nax); the adjective superstantes ?survivors?, apparently the issue of two consequent vulgar developments, superstes > superstens (hypercorrect spelling) > superstans (false analogy); an isosyllabic 3rd declension nominative singular, Melioris (from the name Melior), as well as a 3rd decl. dative singular generi from the 2nd decl. noun gener ?son-in-law?; an early borrowing from Germanic, brutes ?daughter-in-law?; a ?weak? future participle, sequiture, for secuturae; the bastard noun volumptas, cf. voluntas and voluptas; a correlative construction with sic...sic for quemadmodum...sic; and the verb adjuvare followed by a dative, which illustrates a vulgarism known from the Glossaries. Another kind of vulgarity, which is rather a matter of simplicity than purely linguistic incompetence, is found in cases such as an epitaph whose dedicator calls herself bene merita; or a semi-metric inscription-a commaticum-whose actual text may be the outcome of tampering with a regular epigraphic poem

Using vocabulary examples from the letters of the only two editors of the 1930s Livonian language newspaper “Līvli”, this article shows that it is possible to find new words in sources which have been little utilized up until now in linguistic studies with which it is possible to supplement the Livonian lexicon. The vocabulary examples show the types of new words and borrowing that the “Līvli” editors put to use in their correspondence and whether these reflect forms found in the 2012 “Livonian-Estonian-Latvian dictionary”, which is the largest project devoted to the Livonian language undertaken in recent times. A brief analysis is provided on the basis of these examples showing whether the spelling of these words and their grouping by declension type is done in a consistent manner or whether changes are necessary in this respect. It is concluded that in the “Livonian-Estonian-Latvian dictionary” there is a considerable diversity in declension types in need of being simplified for the following groups of borrowed words: 1) nouns ending in Latvian with -āris , -ārs and in Livonian with -ār ; 2) nouns ending in Latvian with -ors and in Livonian with -or , -ō r; 3) nouns ending in Latvian with -āls , -āle , -ālis and in Livonian with -al , -āl , 4) adjectives ending in Latvian with -āls and in Livonian with -āl . Likewise, it is concluded that in newly formed words, especially borrowed international words, word formation principles are not followed consistently. Additionally, examples of possible new words, which could be added to the dictionary of the Livonian literary language, are provided in this article. Kokkuvote. Renāte Blumberga: Liivi keel 1930. aastate kirjades: pilk ajakirja “Līvli” toimetajate kirjavahetusele. Artiklis naidatakse 1930. aastatel ilmunud liivikeelse ajakirja “Līvli” molema toimetaja Aņdroks Stāleri ja Kōrli Stalte kirjadest leiduvate sonavaranaidete abil, et ka seni keeleteaduslikes uurimustes vahe kasutatud allikatest on voimalik leida uusi sonu liivi keele sonavara taiendamiseks. Sonavaranaited annavad ettekujutuse sellest, milliseid uudis- ja voorsonu kasutasid “Līvli” toimetajad oma kirjavahetuses ning kas need langevad kokku viimase aja suurimas kirjakeele allikas – 2012. aastal ilmunud “Liivi-eesti-lati sonaraamatus” – esitatud vormidega. Nende naidete alusel esitatakse ka luhianaluus selle kohta, kas sonaraamatu sonade kirjutusviis ja muutevormistik on reegliparased ning kas selles osas on vaja muudatusi. Joutakse jareldusele, et “Liivi-eesti-lati sonaraamatus” on taheldatav koikuvus sonade muutevormides. Seda oleks tarvis uhtlustada jargnevates voorsonade ruhmades: 1) nimisonadel, mille lopp lati keeles on -āris , -ārs ja liivi keeles -ār ; 2) nimisonadel, mille lopp on lati keeles -ors ja liivi keeles -or , -ōr ; 3) nimisonadel, mille lopp on lati keeles -āls , -āle , -ālis ja liivi keeles -al , -āl , 4) omadussonadel, mille lopp on lati keeles -āls ja liivi keeles -āl . Samuti jareldati, et uudissonades – eriti puudutab see rahvusvahelisi laene – pole jargitud kindlaid sonaloome pohimotteid. Artiklis on esitatud ka naiteid voorsonadest, mille abil saaks liivi kirjakeele sonaraamatut taiendada. Marksonad: liivi keel, liivi keele allikad, liivi kultuuriajalugu, keelekorraldus, liivi ortograafia, laenud, sonavara taiendamine Kubbovottoks. Renāte Blumberga: Līvo kēļ 1930. āigastod kēris: pilk āigakēra “Līvli” tuoimijid kēravaitokso. Kēra nagțob 1930-dis āigastis ulzo tund āigakēra “Līvli” mȯlmod tuoimijid Aņdroks Stāler ja Kǭrli Stalte kēris lieudobod sonāvīļa nagțobod abkoks, ku īž siedaig sǭņo kīeltieudližis tuņsloksis veito kȭlbatod ovātis voi lieudo ūži soņḑi līvo kīel sonāvīļa tautontomiz pierāst. Sonāvīļa nagțobod āndabod jeddonagțoks sīesto, mingiži ūdoks- ja vȭrsoņḑi kȭlbatizt “Līvliz” tuoimijid eņts kēravatoksos ja voi ne sadābod kubbo perīz āiga sūrimos kērakīel ovātos – 2012. āigaston ulzo tund “Līvokīel-ēstikīel-lețkīel sonārǭntos” – nagțod formodoks. Nant nagțokst pūoj pǟl sǭb andtod līti anālīz sīesto, voi sonārǭntos sonād kēratimi ja notkijid formod āto pandokspierrizt agā nēsi um vajāg mȭitoksi. Um pierāldod, ku “Līvokīel-ēstikīel-lețkīel sonārǭntos” um nǟdob abīdlit sonād mȭitantimiz tīpis. Siedā vȯlks īdlistomost nēsi vȭrsonād tīpis: 1) ažāsonād, kus lețkīels tutkāmol um -āris , -ārs ja līvo kīels -ār ; 2) ažāsonād, kus lețkīels tutkāmol um -ors ja līvo kīels -or , -ōr ; 3) ažāsonād, kus lețkīels tutkāmol um -āls ja līvo kīels -al , -āl . Vel um pierāldod, ku ūdokssoņsi – īžkiz rovdvailižis tapīņtod soņsi – ab ūot piddot vissod sonāvīțimiz pūojmotkod. Kēras āto tūodod ka nagțokst vȭrsoņsti, missoks sǭb līvo kērakīel sonārōntozt tautonto.