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The application of sustainability principles to mining activities remains challenging. Explorations of non-renewable natural resources are irreversible; however, they can be better compensated for if the profit resulting from extraction is reinvested in social and human well-being and if environmental impacts are repaired. Thus, the evaluation of mining sustainability is necessary and requires efficient indicators to measure economic, social, and environmental performance. Here, we present the composite environmental sustainability index [CESI] of the landscape for iron mines in the Carajas National Forest, a protected site in the Brazilian Amazon. The index integrates 20 individual environmental indicators related to (1) changes in land cover and land use, (2) direct impacts caused by operations, (3) residue disposal and management, (4) energy, water, and soil resources, and (5) compensation for environmental damage. To define the threshold values for classifying individual indicators, we use legal requirements, data from the literature and historical time series. The values obtained for each of the individual indicators were normalized in terms of linguistic criteria, such as unsustainability (1), low sustainability (2) and high sustainability (3). The sustainability index of each of the five categories was calculated and based on these values, we computed the CESI of the physical mining environment. The values presented here represent baselines for further monitoring and evaluating the sustainability of the physical environment, guaranteeing iron ore exploitation in Carajas mining region with minimum environmental impacts. The proposed index can indicate a path towards environmental sustainability, especially in protected areas.

Remote sensing technologies can play a fundamental role in the environmental assessment of open-cast mining and the accurate quantification of mine land rehabilitation efforts. Here, we developed a systematic geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) approach to map the amount of revegetated area and quantify the land use changes in open-cast mines in the Carajás region in the eastern Amazon, Brazil. Based on high-resolution satellite images from 2011 to 2015 from different sensors (GeoEye, WorldView-3 and IKONOS), we quantified forests, cangas (natural metalliferous savanna ecosystems), mine land, revegetated areas and water bodies. Based on the GEOBIA approach, threshold values were established to discriminate land cover classes using spectral bands, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference water index (NDWI) and a light detection and range sensor (LiDAR) digital terrain model and slope map. The overall accuracy was higher than 90%, and the kappa indices varied between 0.82 and 0.88. During the observation period, the mining complex expanded, which led to the conversion of canga and forest vegetation to mine land. At the same time, the amount of revegetated area increased. Thus, we conclude that our approach is capable of providing consistent information regarding land cover changes in mines, with a special focus on the amount of revegetation necessary to fulfill environmental liabilities.

The southeastern Amazon region has been intensively occupied by human settlements over the past three decades. To evaluate the effects of human settlements on land-cover and land-use (LCLU) changes over time in the study site, we evaluated multitemporal Landsat images from the years 1984, 1994, 2004, 2013 and Sentinel to the year 2017. Then, we defined the LCLU classes, and a detailed “from-to” change detection approach based on a geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) was employed to determine the trajectories of the LCLU changes. Three land-cover (forest, montane savanna and water bodies) and three land-use types (pasturelands, mining and urban areas) were mapped. The overall accuracies and kappa values of the classification were higher than 0.91 for each of the classified images. Throughout the change detection period, ~47% (19,320 km2) of the forest was preserved mainly within protected areas, while almost 42% (17,398 km2) of the area was converted from forests to pasturelands. An intrinsic connection between the increase in mining activity and the expansion of urban areas also exists. The direct impacts of mining activities were more significant throughout the montane savanna areas. We concluded that the GEOBIA approach adopted in this study combines the advantages of quality human interpretation and the capacities of quantitative computing.

The eastern Brazilian Amazon contains many isolated ferruginous savanna ecosystem patches (locally known as 'canga vegetation') located on ironstone rocky outcrops on the top of plateaus and ridges, surrounded by tropical rainforests. In the Carajás Mineral Province (CMP), these outcrops contain large iron ore reserves that have been exploited by opencast mining since the 1980s. The canga vegetation is particularly impacted by mining, since the iron ores that occur are associated with this type of vegetation and currently, little is known regarding the extent of canga vegetation patches before mining activities began. This information is important for quantifying the impact of mining, in addition to helping plan conservation programmes. Here, land cover changes of the Canga area in the CMP are evaluated by estimating the pre-mining area of canga patches and comparing it to the actual extent of canga patches. We mapped canga vegetation using geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) from 1973 Landsat-1 MSS, 1984 and 2001 Landsat-5 TM, and 2016 Landsat-8 OLI images, and found that canga vegetation originally occupied an area of 144.2 km2 before mining exploitation. By 2016, 19.6% of the canga area was lost in the CMP due to conversion to other land-use types (mining areas, pasturelands). In the Carajás National Forest (CNF), located within the CMP, the original canga vegetation covered 105.2 km2 (2.55% of the CNF total area), and in 2016, canga vegetation occupied an area of 77.2 km2 (1.87%). Therefore, after more than three decades of mineral exploitation, less than 20% of the total canga area was lost. Currently, 21% of the canga area in the CMP is protected by the Campos Ferruginosos National Park. By documenting the initial extent of canga vegetation in the eastern Amazon and the extent to which it has been lost due to mining operations, the results of this work are the first step towards conserving this ecosystem.