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Complex microbial communities facilitate iron and methane transformations in anoxic methanic sediments of freshwater lakes, such as Lake Kinneret (the Sea of Galilee, Israel). The phylogenetic and functional diversity of these consortia are not fully understood, and it is not clear which lineages perform iron reduction and anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). Here, we investigated microbial communities from both natural Lake Kinneret iron-rich methanic sediments (>20 cm depth) and iron-amended slurry incubations from this zone using metagenomics, focusing on functions associated with iron reduction and methane cycling. Analyses of the phylogenetic and functional diversity indicate that consortia of archaea (mainly Bathyarchaeia, Methanomicrobia, Thermoplasmata, and Thermococci) and bacteria (mainly Chloroflexi (Chloroflexota), Nitrospirae (Nitrospirota), and Proteobacteria) perform key metabolic reactions such as amino acid uptake and dissimilation, organic matter fermentation, and methanogenesis. The Deltaproteobacteria, especially Desulfuromondales (Desulfuromonadota), have the potential to transfer electrons extracellularly either to iron mineral particles or to microbial syntrophs, including methanogens. This is likely via transmembrane cytochromes, outer-membrane hexaheme c-type cytochrome (OmcS) in particular, or pilin monomers (PilA), all of which were attributed to this lineage. Bona fide anaerobic oxidizers of methane (ANME) and denitrifying methanotrophs Methylomirabilia (NC10) may mediate AOM in these methanogenic sediments; however we also consider the role of methanogens in active AOM or back flux of methanogenesis. Putative aerobes, such as methane-oxidizing bacteria Methylomonas and their methylotrophic syntrophs Methylotenera , are found among the anaerobic lineages in Lake Kinneret iron-amended slurries and are also involved in the oxidation of methane or its intermediates, as suggested previously. We propose a reaction model for the metabolic interactions in these sediments, linking the potential players that interact via intricate metabolic tradeoffs and direct electron transfer between species. Our results highlight the metabolic complexity of microbial communities in an energy-limited environment, where aerobe and anaerobe communities may co-exist and facilitate AOM as one strategy for survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A deep chlorophyll maximum (DCM) is often seen in stratified freshwater bodies at the interface between an anaerobic layer and an oxic layer. A DCM of the green sulfur bacterium Chlorobium phaeobacteroides was previously reported as a dense population in the oxygen devoid layer of a monomictic stratified lake, Lake Kinneret, Israel.In this multidisciplinary study, we examined the vertical distribution and diversity of the DCM photosynthetic community and characterised it spectrally and genetically, over two consecutive years.Pigment composition, together with 16S rDNA sequencing data unveil the presence of more than a single Chlorobium species as dominant members of the DCM community. Altogether, five different Chlorobia genotypes were identified, four of which occurred in both of the studied years. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the dominant genotype is closely related to C. phaeobacteroides, implying that it contributes the majority of the bacteriochlorophyll‐e found in the DCM of the lake.Hierarchical clustering analysis demonstrates that dissolved oxygen concentration is a strong predictor for the distribution of all Chlorobia genotypes found in Lake Kinneret. Furthermore, this analysis suggests that competition probably exists between the various Chlorobia genotypes and proposes that a C. phaeobacteroides‐related amplicon sequence variant is better equipped to cope with the conditions prevailing in Lake Kinneret metalimnion.Chlorobia genotypes composing the DCM appear at a similar relative abundance in two consecutive years, even though timing and intensity of the DCM were different. This stable structure of the Chlorobia community observed here may represent a general theme in other stratified freshwater bodies harbouring Chlorobia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complex microbial communities facilitate iron and methane transformations in anoxic methanic sediments of freshwater lakes, such as Lake Kinneret (The Sea of Galilee, Israel). The phylogenetic and functional diversity of these consortia are not fully understood, and it is not clear which lineages perform iron reduction, anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) or both (Fe-AOM). Here, we investigated microbial communities from both natural Lake Kinneret sediments and iron-amended slurry incubations using metagenomics, focusing on functions associated with iron reduction and methane cycling. Analyses of the phylogenetic and functional diversity indicate that consortia of archaea (mainly Bathyarchaeia, Methanomicrobia, Thermoplasmata, and Thermococci) and bacteria (mainly Chloroflexi (Chloroflexota), Nitrospirae (Nitrospirota) and Proteobacteria) perform key metabolic reactions such as amino acid uptake and dissimilation, organic matter fermentation, and methanogenesis. The intrinsic Deltaproteobacteria, especially Desulfuromondales (Desulfuromonadota), have the potential to transfer electrons extracellularly either to iron mineral particles or to microbial syntrophs, including methanogens. This is likely via transmembrane cytochromes, outer membrane hexaheme c-type cytochrome (OmcS) in particular, or pilin monomer, PilA, which were attributed to this lineage. The bonafide anaerobic oxidizers of methane (ANME) and denitrifying methanotrophs Methylomirabilia (NC10) were scarce, and we consider the role of the lineage Methanothrix (Methanothrichales) in Fe-AOM. We show that putative aerobes, such as methane-oxidizing bacteria Methylomonas and their methylotrophic synthrophs Methylotenera are found among the anaerobic lineages in Lake Kinneret iron amended slurries and can be involved in the oxidation of methane or its intermediates, as suggested previously. We propose a reaction model for metabolic interactions in the lake sediments, linking the potential players that interact via intricate metabolic tradeoffs and direct electron transfer between species. Our results highlight the metabolic complexity of microbial communities in an energylimited environment, where aerobe and anaerobe communities may co-exist and facilitate Fe-AOM as one strategy for survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to characterize biogeochemical sulfur cycling in the metalimnion of a thermally stratified freshwater lake, we followed changes in the concentrations and isotopic composition of sulfur species during a 24-h period, during which the chemocline oscillated at an amplitude of 5.3 m due to internal wave activity. Hourly sampling at a fixed depth (17.1 m) enabled study of redox changes during the transition from oxic to sulfidic conditions and vice versa. The oxidation–reduction potential, pH, conductivity and turbidity correlated linearly with the water temperature (a proxy for depth relative to the chemocline). The highest concentrations of thiosulfate and sulfite were detected approximately 2.5 m below the chemocline. Concentrations of zero-valent sulfur increased ~ 10 fold when the chemocline rose into the photic zone due to phototrophic sulfide oxidation. Triple isotopic composition of sulfur species indicates a shift with depth from values typical for sulfate reduction right below the chemocline to values which may be explained by either sulfate reduction alone or by a combination of microbial sulfate reduction and microbial sulfate disproportionation. We conclude that consumption of hydrogen sulfide at the chemocline of Lake Kinneret is controlled by the combination of its chemical and/or chemotrophic oxidation to sulfur oxoanions and predominantly phototrophic oxidation to zero-valent sulfur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the initial online version of the article, the sampling station location "F" was missing in Fig. 1. The original article has been corrected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Full seasonal sets of chemical and isotope profiles from the pore water of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee, Israel) were produced to study methanogenesis and methanotrophy processes and the couplings between methane (CH4), sulfur, and iron. Sulfate is depleted within the upper 10 cm of the sediment mainly by traditional bacterial sulfate reduction by organic matter. Maximum sulfate reduction rates calculated from sulfate concentration profiles are found at the water--sediment interface (0-1 cm - 1.4 x 1012 ± 0.2 x 10-12 mol cm-3 s-1). CH4 concentrations and modeling of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and its stable carbon isotope (δ13 CDIC) suggest that maximum methanogenesis rates of 2.5 x 1013 ± 1.5 x 1013 mol cm-3 s-1 occur at 5-12-cm depth in the sediments, and that it ends at 20 cm. Of the produced CH4, 50-75% is converted to gas bubbles of CH4 before it reaches the bottom water. Model results suggest the occurrence of anaerobic oxidation of CH4 (AOM) in the deep sediments of the lake below the zone of methanogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]