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Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder primarily affecting the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. The link between heightened activity of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) and neurodegene-rative processes has encouraged investigation into the potential disease-modifying effects of novel GSK3β inhibitors in experimental models of PD. Therefore, the intriguing ability of several anesthetics to readily inhibit GSK3β within the cortex and hippocampus led us to investigate the effects of brief isoflurane anesthesia on striatal GSK3β signaling in naïve rats and in a rat model of early-stage PD. Deep but brief (20-min) isoflurane anesthesia exposure increased the phosphorylation of GSK3β at the inhibitory Ser9 residue, and induced phosphorylation of AKTThr308 (protein kinase B; negative regulator of GSK3β) in the striatum of naïve rats and rats with unilateral striatal 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion. The 6-OHDA protocol produced gradual functional deficiency within the nigrostriatal pathway, reflected as a preference for using the limb ipsilateral to the lesioned striatum at 2 weeks post 6-OHDA. Interestingly, such motor impairment was not observed in animals exposed to four consecutive isoflurane treatments (20-min anesthesia every 48 h; treatments started 7 days after 6-OHDA delivery). However, isoflurane had no effect on striatal or nigral tyrosine hydroxylase (a marker of dopaminergic neurons) protein levels. This brief report provides promising results regarding the therapeutic potential and neurobiological mechanisms of anesthetics in experimental models of PD and guides development of novel disease-modifying therapies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several investigative prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP) inhibitors have been shown to improve learning and memory in various preclinical trials but the mechanism of action behind these effects remains unclear. Since hippocampal and cortical acetylcholine (ACh) is known to play an important role in cognitive processes, the effects of two potent PREP inhibitors, JTP-4819 and KYP-2047, on extracellular ACh levels in hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex were assessed using in vivo microdialysis. Conscious rats were treated with a single dose (15 or 50 μmol/kg i.p.) of JTP-4819, KYP-2047 or vehicle, and extracellular ACh levels were monitored for 5 h after treatment. In hippocampus, KYP-2047 had no significant effect on the ACh levels, although a trend towards decreased levels was observed at the higher dose. JTP-4819 had no significant effect on the hippocampal ACh levels at the lower dose (15 μmol/kg), but the higher dose (50 μmol/kg) significantly decreased ACh levels in hippocampus by about 25%. In cortex, the smaller dose (15 μmol/kg) of KYP-2047 decreased ACh levels maximally by 25%, and a similar (ns) effect was also observed after the higher dose. JTP-4819 had no effect at the lower dose, but the higher dose decreased ACh levels maximally by about 30%. In conclusion, the present results suggest that the cognition-enhancing effects of investigative PREP inhibitors are not due to enhanced cholinergic transmission in hippocampus or cortex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP, EC 3.4.21.26) inhibitors have potential as cognition enhancers, but the mechanism of action behind the cognitive effects remains unclear. Since acetylcholine (ACh) and dopamine (DA) are known to be associated with the regulation of cognitive processes, we investigated the effects of two PREP inhibitors on the extracellular levels of ACh and DA in the rat striatum using in vivo microdialysis. KYP-2047 and JTP-4819 were administered either as a single systemic dose (50μmol/kg∼17mg/kg i.p.) or directly into the striatum by retrodialysis via the microdialysis probe (12.5, 37.5 or 125μM at 1.5μl/min for 60min). PREP inhibitors had no significant effect on striatal DA levels after systemic administration. JTP-4819 significantly decreased ACh levels both after systemic (by ∼25%) and intrastriatal (by ∼30–50%) administration. KYP-2047 decreased ACh levels only after intrastriatal administration by retrodialysis (by ∼40–50%) when higher drug levels were reached, indicating that higher brain drug levels are needed to modulate ACh levels than to inhibit PREP. This result does not support the earlier hypothesis that the positive cognitive effects of PREP inhibitors in rodents would be mediated through the cholinergic system. In vitro specificity studies did not reveal any obvious off-targets that could explain the observed effect of KYP-2047 and JTP-4819 on ACh levels, instead confirming the concept that these compounds have a high selectivity towards PREP. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP, EC 3.4.21.26) hydrolyzes neuropeptides, such as neurotensin and substance P in vitro, but its importance in the in vivo metabolism of these peptides has not been proved. This is the first report where intracerebral microdialysis combined with highly sensitive radioimmunoassay has been used to investigate the effect of PREP inhibition on the brain extracellular peptide levels in conscious rats. We show that PREP inhibition by KYP-2047 (50μmol/kg=17mg/kg, intraperitoneally, that effectively inhibits PREP in the brain), has no effect on the neurotensin and substance P levels in the striatum extracellular space. This provides a further piece of evidence in support of the proposition that PREP is not significantly responsible for the in vivo cleavage of substance P or neurotensin, and that occasional positive cognitive effects associated with some PREP inhibitors are not mediated through elevated extracellular levels of these peptides. Direct regulation of peptide processing by PREP is not likely because the enzyme is located intracellularly and the peptide substrates are mostly extracellular. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Although several in vitro models have been reported to predict the ability of drug candidates to cross the blood–brain barrier, their real in vivo relevance has rarely been evaluated. The present study demonstrates the in vivo relevance of simple unidirectional permeability coefficient (P app) determined in three in vitro cell models (BBMEC, Caco-2 and MDCKII-MDR1) for nine model drugs (alprenolol, atenolol, metoprolol, pindolol, entacapone, tolcapone, baclofen, midazolam and ondansetron) by using dual probe microdialysis in the rat brain and blood as an in vivo measure. There was a clear correlation between the P app and the unbound brain/blood ratios determined by in vivo microdialysis (BBMEC r =0.99, Caco-2 r =0.91 and MDCKII-MDR1 r =0.85). Despite of the substantial differences in the absolute in vitro P app values and regardless of the method used (side-by-side vs. filter insert system), the capability of the in vitro models to rank order drugs was similar. By this approach, thus, the additional value offered by the true endothelial cell model (BBMEC) remains obscure. The present results also highlight the need of both in vitro as well as in vivo methods in characterization of blood–brain barrier passage of new drug candidates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The blood–brain barrier (BBB) controls the entry of xenobiotics into the brain. Often the development of central nervous system drugs needs to be terminated because of their poor brain uptake. We describe a way to achieve large neutral amino acid transporter (LAT1)-mediated drug transport into the rat brain. We conjugated ketoprofen to an amino acid l-lysine so that the prodrug could access LAT1. The LAT1-mediated brain uptake of the prodrug was demonstrated with in situ rat brain perfusion technique. The ability of the prodrug to deliver ketoprofen into the site of action, the brain intracellular fluid, was determined combining in vivo and in vitro experiments. A rapid brain uptake from blood and cell uptake was seen both in in situ and in vivo experiments. Therefore, our results show that a prodrug approach can achieve uptake of drugs via LAT1 into the brain intracellular fluid. The distribution of the prodrug in the brain parenchyma and the site of parent drug release in the brain were shown with in vivo and in vitro studies. In addition, our results show that although lysine or ketoprofen are not LAT1-substrates themselves, by combining these molecules, the formed prodrug has affinity for LAT1. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The effects of a novel prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) inhibitor KYP-2047 on spatial memory of young (3-month-old) and old (8- to 9-month-old) scopolamine-treated rats (0.4 mg/kg intraperitoneally) was investigated in the Morris water maze. In addition, the concentrations of promnesic neuropeptide substrates of POP, substance P and neurotensin in various brain areas after acute and chronic POP inhibition were measured in young rats. In addition, inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) levels were assayed in rat cortex and hippocampus after effective 2.5-day POP inhibition. KYP-2047 (1 or 5 mg/kg 30 min. before daily testing) dose-dependently improved the escape performance (i.e. latency to find the hidden platform and swimming path length) of the young but not the old rats in the water maze. POP inhibition had no consistent effect on substance P levels in cortex, hippocampus or hypothalamus, and only a modest increase in neurotensin concentration was observed in the hypothalamus after a single dose of KYP-2047. Moreover, IP3 concentrations remained unaffected in cortex and hippocampus after POP inhibition. In conclusion, the behavioural data support the earlier findings of the promnesic action of POP inhibitors, but the mechanism of the memory-enhancing action remains unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]