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Background: The hospital wastewater system has been reported as a source of nosocomial acquisition of carbapenemase producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) in various settings. Cleaning and disinfection protocols or replacement of contaminated equipment often fail to eradicate these environmental reservoirs, which can lead to long-term transmission of CPE. We report a successful multimodal approach to control a New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase positive Klebsiella pneumoniae (NDM-KP) nosocomial outbreak implicating contamination of sink traps in a low-incidence setting., Methods: Following the incidental identification of NDM-KP in a urine culture of an inpatient, we performed an epidemiological investigation, including patient and environmental CPE screening, and whole genome sequencing (WGS) of strains. We also implemented multimodal infection prevention and control (IPC) measures, namely the isolation of cases, waterless patient care, replacement of contaminated P-traps and connecting pieces, and bleach and steam disinfection of sinks for 6 months, followed by patient and environmental screenings for eradication., Results: Between February and May 2022, five NDM-KP cases were identified in an eight-bed neurosurgical intermediate care unit. Among the eight sink traps of the unit, three were positive for NDM-KP. Patient and environmental isolates belonged to multilocus sequence typing ST-268. All isolate genomes were genetically very similar suggesting cross-transmission and a potential role of the environment as the source of transmissions. Following the introduction of combined IPC measures, no new case was subsequently detected and sink traps remained negative for NDM-KP within 6 months after the intervention., Conclusion: The implementation of multimodal IPC measures, including waterless patient care combined with the replacement and disinfection of P-traps and connecting pieces, was successful in the control of NDM-KP after eight months. In a low-incidence setting, this approach has made it possible to pursue the objective of zero transmission of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE)., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Klebsiella pneumoniae is among the most important Gram-negative pathogens that can cause serious nosocomial infections. The emergence and prevalence of hypervirulent carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (Hv-CRKP) pose a significant challenge to public health. In this study, we characterized thirty carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (CRKP) strains from a tertiary care hospital in Sichuan province, China, by whole-genome sequencing and genome analysis. These strains were all highly resistant to carbapenem but remained susceptible to tigecycline. Of the 30 tested CRKP strains, 23 were positive for bla KPC-2 and seven for bla NDM-5 . These bla KPC-2 -positive strains all belonged to ST11, while bla NDM-5 -positive strains belonged to five distinct STs. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a predominant intra-hospital transmission of ST11-KL64 in KPC-2-producing CRKP, and that both clonal and horizontal transmission of bla NDM-5 have occurred among NDM-5-producing CRKP strains in this hospital. Hypervirulence genes were commonly detected in the CRKP. The prevalent pLVKP-like plasmid and ICEKp seem to have contributed largely to the transmission of virulence genes in them. bla NDM-5 was located on highly similar IncX3 plasmids in the collected strains, and its truncated vision was highlighted. bla KPC-2 was primarily carried by IncFII/IncR plasmids in our collection. At least two IncFII/IncR plasmid subtypes were identified, exhibiting high similarity to many previously reported bla KPC-2 -bearing plasmids from different parts of China. The findings provide an expanded knowledge of the genetic characteristics of CRKP, the transmission pattern of carbapenem-resistance genes, and also the convergence of Hv-CRKP., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: The dissemination of Klebsiella spp. producing multiple carbapenemases has been increasingly recognized. Between July 2019 and August 2021, ten patients were found to carry Klebsiella spp. co-harboring bla KPC-4 and bla VIM-1 across multiple wards at a Korean hospital, and one isolate was recovered from a hand-washing sink, more than a year after the outbreak. This study aimed to investigate the outbreak and conduct a genomic study of these isolates., Methods: Whole-genome sequencing, including long-read sequencing, was performed to analyze plasmid structures and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Bioinformatics analyses were performed to trace clonal transmission chains and horizontal gene transfer., Results: The findings suggested that the inter-ward spread of Klebsiella spp. seemed to be facilitated by healthcare worker contact or patient movement. Of the nine isolates collected (eight clinical and one environmental), seven (including the environmental isolate) were identified as K. pneumoniae (ST3680) and two were K. variicola (single-locus variant of ST5252). These isolates showed high genetic relatedness within their species and harbored the IncHI5B plasmid carrying both bla KPC-4 and bla VIM-1 (pKPCVIM.1). On this plasmid, bla VIM-1 was located in the Class 1 integron associated with IS1326::IS1353 (In2), and Tn4401b carrying bla KPC-4 was inserted into IS1326::IS1353, creating a novel MGE construct (In2_bla VIM-1 -Tn4401b_bla KPC-4 )., Conclusion: The hospital-wide spread of bla KPC-4 and bla VIM-1 was facilitated by clonal spread and horizontal plasmid transfer. The persistence of this strain in the hospital sink suggests a potential reservoir of the strain. Understanding the transmission mechanisms of persistent pathogens is important for improving infection control strategies in hospitals., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Carbapenem-resistant and hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae (CR-hvKP) caused infections of high mortality and brought a serious impact on public health. This study aims to evaluate the epidemiology, resistance and virulence characteristics of CR-hvKP and to identify potential drivers of cross-regional transmission in different regions of China, in order to provide a basis for developing targeted prevention measures., Methods: Clinical K. pneumoniae strains were collected from Jiujiang and Nanchang in Jiangxi province between November 2021 to June 2022. Clinical data of patients (age, sex, source of infection, and diagnosis) were also gathered. We characterized these strains for their genetic relatedness using PFGE, antimicrobial and virulence plasmid structures using whole-genome sequencing, and toxicity using Galleria mellonella infection model., Results: Among 609 strains, 45 (7.4%) CR-hvKP were identified, while the strains. isolated from Nanchang and Jiujiang accounted for 10.05% (36/358) and 3.59% (9/251). We observed that ST11-KL64 CR-hvKP had an overwhelming epidemic dominance in these two regions. Significant genetic diversity was identified among all ST11-KL64 CR-hvKP cross-regional transmission between Nanchang and Jiujiang and this diversity served as the primary driver of the dissemination of clonal groups. Virulence genes profile revealed that ST11-KL64 CR-hvKP might harbour incomplete pLVPK-like plasmids and primarily evolved from CRKP by acquiring the hypervirulence plasmid. We found the predominance of truncated-IncFIB/IncHI1B type virulence plasmids with a 25 kb fragment deletion that encoded iroBCDN clusters., Conclusion: ST11-KL64 is the most cross-regional prevalent type CR-hvKPs in Jiangxi province, which mainly evolved from CRKPs by acquiring a truncated-IncHI1B/IncFIB virulence plasmid with the deletion of iroBCDN. Stricter surveillance and control measures are urgently needed to prevent the epidemic transmission of ST11-KL64 CR-hvKP., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) has recently emerged as a notable public health concern, while the underlying drivers of CRKP transmission among patients across different healthcare facilities have not been fully elucidated. To explore the transmission dynamics of CRKP, 45 isolates were collected from both the intensive care unit (ICU) and non-ICU facilities in a teaching hospital in Guangdong, China, from March 2020 to August 2023. The collection of clinical data and antimicrobial resistance phenotypes was conducted, followed by genomic data analysis for these isolates. The mean age of the patients was 75.2 years, with 18 patients (40.0%) admitted to the ICU. The predominant strain in hospital-acquired CRKP was sequence type 11 (ST11), with k-locus type 64 and serotype O1/O2v1 (KL64:O1/O2v1), accounting for 95.6% (43/45) of the cases. The CRKP ST11 isolates from the ICU exhibited a low single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) distance when compared to isolates from other departments. Genome-wide association studies identified 17 genes strongly associated with SNPs that distinguish CRKP ST11 isolates from those in the ICU and other departments. Temporal transmission analysis revealed that all CRKP isolates from other departments were genetically very close to those from the ICU, with fewer than 16 SNP differences. To further elucidate the transmission routes among departments within the hospital, we reconstructed detailed patient-to-patient transmission pathways using hybrid methods that combine TransPhylo with an SNP-based algorithm. A clear transmission route, along with mutations in potential key genes, was deduced from genomic data coupled with clinical information in this study, providing insights into CRKP transmission dynamics in healthcare settings.

Objectives: To investigate the clinical and molecular epidemiological characteristics of bla IMP-4 -carrying Klebsiella pneumoniae in a tertiary hospital in China., Methods: Ten carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae (CRKP) isolates carrying the bla IMP-4 gene were collected. Molecular characteristics were analysed using whole-genome sequencing. Plasmid conjugation experiments were used to analyse conjugation of the plasmids. We compared and analysed K. pneumoniae-carrying bla IMP-4 genomic datasets obtained from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) with the strains in this study., Results: All 10 CRKP isolates carrying bla IMP-4 were collected from 10 adult patients in the respiratory intensive care unit. These strains were only sensitive to polymyxins and tigecycline due to them simultaneously carrying multiple resistance genes, namely bla OKP-A-5 , fosA, oqxA, and oqxB. Notably, R29 harboured two carbapenemase genes (bla NDM-1 and bla IMP-4 ). These strains had similar drug-resistant phenotypes and genes, all belonging to sequence type (ST)196. Additionally, the patients had experienced spatiotemporal intersection during hospitalization, suggesting that these strains underwent clonal transmission, but they belonged to different clonal clusters from the bla IMP-4 -positive K. pneumoniae currently published in the NCBI. Among the 10 strains, bla IMP-4 was located on the IncN plasmid, and six strains had successfully transferred the plasmid to the recipient strain EC600 through plasmid conjugation., Conclusions: The bla IMP-4 -positive ST196 CRKP isolate showed clonal distribution in the respiratory intensive care unit, which was mediated by the IncN plasmid. Consequently, there should be increased monitoring of carbapenem-resistant strains in clinical settings to prevent and control its transmission., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Klebsiella pneumoniae (Kp) is increasingly recognized as a reservoir for a range of antibiotic resistance genes and a pathogen that frequently causes severe infections in both hospital and community settings. In this study, we have identified a novel mechanism of conjugative transfer of a non-conjugative virulence plasmid through the formation of a fusion plasmid between the virulence plasmid and a novel 59,162 bp IncN- plasmid. This plasmid was found to be a multidrug-resistance (MDR) plasmid and carried a T4SS cluster, which greatly facilitated the efficient horizontal transfer of the fusion plasmid between Kp strains. The fused virulence plasmid conferred the resistance of serum killing and macrophage phagocytosis to the transconjugants. Importantly, this plasmid was shown to be essential for Kp virulence in a mouse model. Mechanistic analysis revealed that the virulence factors encoded by this virulence plasmid contributed to resistance to in vivo clearance and induced a high level of proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β, which acts as an inducer for more neutrophil recruitment. The transmission of the fusion plasmid in Kp has the potential to convert it into both MDR and hypervirulent Kp, accelerating its evolution, and posing a serious threat to human health. The findings of this study provide new insights into the rapid evolution of MDR and hypervirulent Kp in recent years., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

ABSTRACT Despite no carbapenem use in food animals, carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) perseveres within food animals, rising significant concerns regarding public health risks originating from these non-clinical reservoirs. To investigate the potential link between CRKP in food animals and its infections in humans, we conducted a cross-sectional study encompassing human clinical, meat products, and farm animals, in Qingdao city, Shandong province, China. We observed a relatively higher presence of CRKP among hospital inpatients (7.3%) compared to that in the meat products (2.7%) and farm animals (pig, 4.6%; chicken, 0.63%). Multilocus sequence typing and core-genome phylogenetic analyses confirm there is no evidence of farm animals and meat products in the clinical acquisition of K. pneumoniae isolates and carbapenem-resistant genes. However, potential transmission of K. pneumoniae of ST659 and IncX3 plasmid harbouring bla NDM-5 gene from pigs to pork and farm workers was observed. Our findings suggest a limited role of farm animals and meat products in the human clinical acquisition of K. pneumoniae , and the transmission of K. pneumoniae is more common within settings, than between them.

Bloodstream infections caused by the opportunistic pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae are associated with adverse health complications and high mortality rates. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) limits available treatment options, thus exacerbating its public health and clinical burden. Here, we aim to elucidate the population structure of K. pneumoniae in bloodstream infections from a single medical center and the drivers that facilitate the dissemination of AMR. Analysis of 136 short-read genome sequences complemented with 12 long-read sequences shows the population consisting of 94 sequence types (STs) and 99 clonal groups, including globally distributed multidrug resistant and hypervirulent clones. In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility testing and in silico identification of AMR determinants reveal high concordance (90.44-100%) for aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, carbapenems, cephalosporins, quinolones, and sulfonamides. IncF plasmids mediate the clonal (within the same lineage) and horizontal (between lineages) transmission of the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase gene bla CTX-M-15 . Nearly identical plasmids are recovered from isolates over a span of two years indicating long-term persistence. The genetic determinants for hypervirulence are carried on plasmids exhibiting genomic rearrangement, loss, and/or truncation. Our findings highlight the importance of considering both the genetic background of host strains and the routes of plasmid transmission in understanding the spread of AMR in bloodstream infections., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

bla NDM-1 and bla KPC-2 are responsible for the global increase in carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae, posing a great challenge to public health. However, the impact of phylogenetic factors on the dissemination of bla NDM-1 and bla KPC-2 is not yet fully understood . This study established a global dataset of 4051 bla NDM-1 + and 10,223 bla KPC-2 + K. pneumoniae genomes, and compared their transmission modes on a global scale. The results showed that bla NDM-1 + K. pneumoniae genomes exhibited a broader geographical distribution and higher sequence type (ST) richness than bla KPC-2 + genomes, indicating higher transmissibility of the bla NDM-1 gene. Furthermore, bla NDM-1 + genomes displayed significant differences in ST lineage, antibiotic resistance gene composition, virulence gene composition and genetic environments compared with bla KPC-2 + genomes, suggesting distinct dissemination mechanisms. bla NDM-1 + genomes were predominantly associated with ST147 and ST16, whereas bla KPC-2 + genomes were mainly found in ST11 and ST258. Significantly different accessory genes were identified between bla NDM-1 + and bla KPC-2 + genomes. The preference for bla KPC-2 distribution across certain countries, ST lineages and genetic environments underscores vertical spread as the primary mechanism driving the expansion of bla KPC-2 . In contrast, bla NDM-1 + genomes did not display such a strong preference, confirming that the dissemination of bla NDM-1 mainly depends on horizontal gene transfer. Overall, this study demonstrates different phylogenetic drivers for the dissemination of bla NDM-1 and bla KPC-2 , providing new insights into their global transmission dynamics., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd and International Society of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. All rights reserved.)

Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) poses a major public health risk. Understanding its transmission dynamics requires examining the epidemiological features of related plasmids. Our study compiled 15,660 bla KPC -positive isolates globally over the past two decades. We found extensive diversity in the genetic background of KPC, with 23 Tn4401-related and 341 non-Tn4401 variants across 163 plasmid types in 14 genera. Intra-K. pneumoniae and cross-genus KPC transmission patterns varied across four distinct periods. In the initial periods, plasmids with narrow host ranges gradually established a survival advantage. In later periods, broad-host-range plasmids became crucial for cross-genera transmission. In total, 61 intra-K. pneumoniae and 66 cross-genus transmission units have been detected. Furthermore, phylogenetic reconstruction dated the origin of KPC transmission back to 1991 and revealed frequent exchanges across countries. Our research highlights the frequent and transient spread events of KPC mediated by plasmids across multiple genera and offers theoretical support for high-risk plasmid monitoring., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Aims: Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumonia (CRKP) is a global threat that varies by region. The global distribution, evolution, and clinical implications of the ST11 CRKP clone remain obscure., Methods: We conducted a multicenter molecular epidemiological survey using isolates obtained from 28 provinces and municipalities across China between 2011 and 2021. We integrated sequences from public databases and performed genetic epidemiology analysis of ST11 CRKP., Results: Among ST11 CRKP, KL64 serotypes exhibited considerable expansion, increasing from 1.54% to 46.08% between 2011 and 2021. Combining our data with public databases, the phylogenetic and phylogeography analyses indicated that ST11 CRKP appeared in the Americas in 1996 and spread worldwide, with key clones progressing from China's southeastern coast to the inland by 2010. Global phylogenetic analysis showed that ST11 KL64 CRKP has evolved to a virulent, resistant clade with notable regional spread. Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis identified BMPPS (bmr3, mltC, pyrB, ppsC, and sdaC) as a key marker for this clade. The BMPPS SNP clade is associated with high mortality and has strong anti-phagocytic and competitive traits in vitro., Conclusions: The high-risk ST11 KL64 CRKP subclone showed strong expansion potential and survival advantages, probably owing to genetic factors., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: The prevalence of multidrug-resistant hypervirulent K. pneumoniae (MDR-hvKP) has gradually increased. It poses a severe threat to human health. However, polymyxin-resistant hvKP is rare. Here, we collected eight polymyxin B-resistant K. pneumoniae isolates from a Chinese teaching hospital as a suspected outbreak., Results: The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined by the broth microdilution method. HvKP was identified by detecting virulence-related genes and using a Galleria mellonella infection model. Their resistance to serum, growth, biofilm formation, and plasmid conjugation were analyzed in this study. Molecular characteristics were analyzed using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and mutations of chromosome-mediated two-component systems pmrAB and phoPQ, and the negative phoPQ regulator mgrB to cause polymyxin B (PB) resistance were screened. All isolates were resistant to polymyxin B and sensitive to tigecycline; four were resistant to ceftazidime/avibactam. Except for KP16 (a newly discovered ST5254), all were of the K64 capsular serotype and belonged to ST11. Four strains co-harbored bla KPC-2 , bla NDM-1 , and the virulence-related genes p rmpA, p rmpA2, iucA, and peg344, and were confirmed to be hypervirulent by the G. mellonella infection model. According to WGS analysis, three hvKP strains showed evidence of clonal transmission (8-20 single nucleotide polymorphisms) and had a highly transferable pKOX_NDM1-like plasmid. KP25 had multiple plasmids carrying bla KPC-2 , bla NDM-1 , bla SHV-12 , bla LAP-2 , tet(A), fosA5, and a pLVPK-like virulence plasmid. Tn1722 and multiple additional insert sequence-mediated transpositions were observed. Mutations in chromosomal genes phoQ and pmrB, and insertion mutations in mgrB were major causes of PB resistance., Conclusions: Polymyxin-resistant hvKP has become an essential new superbug prevalent in China, posing a serious challenge to public health. Its epidemic transmission characteristics and mechanisms of resistance and virulence deserve attention., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Increasing evidence of regional pathogen transmission networks highlights the importance of investigating the dissemination of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) across a region to identify where transmission is occurring and how pathogens move across regions. We developed a framework for investigating MDRO regional transmission dynamics using whole-genome sequencing data and created regentrans, an easy-to-use, open source R package that implements these methods (https://github.com/Snitkin-Lab-Umich/regentrans). Using a dataset of over 400 carbapenem-resistant isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae collected from patients in 21 long-term acute care hospitals over a one-year period, we demonstrate how to use our framework to gain insights into differences in inter- and intra-facility transmission across different facilities and over time. This framework and corresponding R package will allow investigators to better understand the origins and transmission patterns of MDROs, which is the first step in understanding how to stop transmission at the regional level.

Co-occurrence of hypervirulence and KPC-2 carbapenem resistant phenotypes in a highly-transmissible ST11 clone of Klebsiella pneumoniae  has elicited deep concerns from public health stand point. To address this puzzle, we conducted a large-scale epidemiological, clinical and genomic study of  K. pneumonia  ST11 clones with both hypervirulence and carbapenem resistance in two tertiary hospitals in Zhejiang province. Most of the patients (15/23) were diagnosed with exclusively carbapenem-resistant  K .  pneumoniae  (CRKP) infections. Ten death cases were reported, some of which are due to the failure of antibiotic therapies. As a result, we identified one new rare sequence types (ST449) to KPC-2-producing CRKP, in addition to the dominant ST11. These clinical isolates of  K. pneumoniae  are multi-drug resistant and possess a number of virulence factors. Experimental infections of wax moth larvae revealed the presence of hypervirulence at varied level, suggesting the complexity in bacterial virulence factors. However, plasmid curing assays further suggested that the  rmpA2 -virulence plasmid is associated with, but not sufficient for neither phenotypic hypermucoviscosity nor virulence of  K .  pneumoniae . Intriguingly, all the  rmpA2  genes were found to be inactive due to genetic deletion. In total, we reported 21 complete plasmid sequences comprising 13  rmpA2 -positive virulence plasmids and 8  bla KPC-2 -harboring resistance plasmids. In addition to the prevalent pLVKP-like virulence plasmid variants (~178kb), we found an unexpected diversity among KPC-2-producing plasmids whose dominant form is IncFII-IncR type (~120kb), rather than the previously anticipated version of ~170kb. These findings provide an updated snapshot of convergence of hypervirulence and carbapenem resistance in ST11  K. pneumoniae.

Background: The increasing prevalence of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) is a growing problem globally, particularly in low- to middle-income countries (LMICs). Previous studies have shown high rates of CRE colonisation among patients at hospitals in LMICs, with increased risk of hospital-acquired infections., Methods: We isolated carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) from faecal samples collected in 2017 from patients at admission and discharge at a Vietnamese neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). 126 CRKP were whole-genome sequenced. The phylogenetic relationship between the isolates and between clinical CRKP isolates collected in 2012-2018 at the same hospital were investigated., Results: NDM-type carbapenemase-(61%) and KPC-2-encoding genes (41%) were the most common carbapenem resistance genes observed among the admission and discharge isolates. Most isolates (56%) belonged to three distinct clonal clusters of ST15, carrying bla KPC-2 , bla NDM-1 and bla NDM-4 , respectively. Each cluster also comprised clinical isolates from blood collected at the study hospital. The most dominant ST15 clone was shown to be related to isolates collected from the same hospital as far back as in 2012., Conclusions: Highly resistant CRKP were found colonising admission and discharge patients at a Vietnamese NICU, emphasising the importance of continued monitoring. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a population of CRKP consisting mostly of ST15 isolates in three clonally related clusters, each related to blood isolates collected from the same hospital. Furthermore, clinical isolates collected from previous years (dating back to 2012) were shown to likely be clonally descended from ST15 isolates in the largest cluster, suggesting a successful hospital strain which can colonise inpatients., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: In the health care setting, infection control actions are fundamental for containing the dissemination of multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDR). Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE), especially Klebsiella pneumoniae (CR-KP), can spread among patients, although the dynamics of transmission are not fully known. Since CR-KP is present in wastewater and microorganisms are not completely removed from the toilet bowl by flushing, the risk of transmission in settings where toilets are shared should be addressed. We investigated whether urinating generates droplets that can be a vehicle for bacteria and explored the use of an innovative foam to control and eliminate this phenomenon., Methods: To study droplet formation during urination, we set up an experiment in which different geometrical configurations of toilets could be reproduced and customized. To demonstrate that droplets can mobilize bacteria from the toilet bowl, a standard ceramic toilet was contaminated with a KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae ST101 isolate. Then, we reproduced urination and attached culture dishes to the bottom of the toilet lid for bacterial colony recovery with and without foam., Results: Rebound droplets invariably formed, irrespective of the geometrical configuration of the toilet. In microbiological experiments, we demonstrated that bacteria are always mobilized from the toilet bowl (mean value: 0.11 ± 0.05 CFU/cm 2 ) and showed that a specific foam layer can completely suppress mobilization., Conclusions: Our study demonstrated that droplets generated from toilets during urination can be a hidden source of CR-KP transmission in settings where toilets are shared among colonized and noncolonized patients., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

The worldwide spread of Klebsiella pneumoniae producing extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL-Kp) is a significant threat. Specifically, various pandemic clones of ESBL-Kp are involved in hospital outbreaks and caused serious infections. In that context, we assessed the phenotypic and molecular features of a collection of ESBL-Kp isolates in a French university hospital and evaluated the occurrence of potential cross-transmissions. Over a 2-year period (2017-2018), 204 non-duplicate isolates of ESBL-Kp were isolated from clinical (n = 118, 57.8%) or screening (n = 86, 42.2%) sample cultures. These isolates were predominantly resistant to cotrimoxazole (88.8%) and ofloxacin (82.8%) but remained susceptible to imipenem (99.3%) and amikacin (93.8%). CTX-M-15 was the most frequent ESBL identified (83.6%). Multilocus sequence typing and pulse-field gel electrophoresis analysis showed an important genetic variability with 41 sequence types (ST) and 50 pulsotypes identified, and the over representation of the international epidemic clones ST307 and ST405. An epidemiological link attesting probable cross-transmission has been identified for 16 patients clustered in 4 groups during the study period. In conclusion, we showed here the dissemination of pandemic clones of ESBL-Kp in our hospital on a background of clonal diversity., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Beta-lactam- and in particular carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae represent a major public health threat. Despite strong variation of resistance across geographical settings, there is limited understanding of the underlying drivers. To assess these drivers, we developed a transmission model of cephalosporin- and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. The model is parameterized using antibiotic consumption and demographic data from eleven European countries and fitted to the resistance rates for Klebsiella pneumoniae for these settings. The impact of potential drivers of resistance is then assessed in counterfactual analyses. Based on reported consumption data, the model could simultaneously fit the prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL and CRK) across eleven European countries over eleven years. The fit could explain the large between-country variability of resistance in terms of consumption patterns and fitted differences in hospital transmission rates. Based on this fit, a counterfactual analysis found that reducing nosocomial transmission and antibiotic consumption in the hospital had the strongest impact on ESBL and CRK prevalence. Antibiotic consumption in the community also affected ESBL prevalence but its relative impact was weaker than inpatient consumption. Finally, we used the model to estimate a moderate fitness cost of CRK and ESBL at the population level. This work highlights the disproportionate role of antibiotic consumption in the hospital and of nosocomial transmission for resistance in gram-negative bacteria at a European level. This indicates that infection control and antibiotic stewardship measures should play a major role in limiting resistance even at the national or regional level., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Studies on the epidemiology and genomes of isolates harboring OXA-48-like genes in septicemic neonates are rare. Here, isolates producing these carbapenemases which emerged and persisted in an Indian neonatal unit were characterized in terms of their resistome, transmissibility, and genome diversity. Antibiotic susceptibility and whole-genome sequencing were carried out. The sequence types, resistome, virulome, mobile genetic elements, and transmissibility of carbapenem-resistant plasmids were evaluated. Core genome analysis of isolates was shown in a global context with other OXA-48-like carbapenemase-harboring genomes, including those from neonatal studies. Eleven OXA-48-like carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae ( bla OXA-181 , n  = 7 and bla OXA-232 , n  = 4) isolates belonging to diverse sequence types (ST14, ST15, ST23, ST48, and ST231) were identified. bla OXA-181/OXA-232 and bla NDM-5 were found in a high-risk clone, ST14 ( n  = 4). bla OXA-181/OXA-232 were in small, nonconjugative ColKP3 plasmids located on truncated Tn 2013 , whereas bla NDM-5 was in self-transmissible, conjugative IncFII plasmids, within truncated Tn 125 Conjugal transfer of bla OXA-181/OXA-232 was observed in the presence of bla NDM-5 The study strains were diverse among themselves and showed various levels of relatedness with non-neonatal strains from different parts of the world and similarity with neonatal strains from Tanzania and Ghana when compared with a representative collection of carbapenemase-positive K. pneumoniae strains. We found that bla OXA-181/OXA-232 -harboring isolates from a single neonatal unit had remarkably diverse genomes, ruling out clonal spread and emphasizing the extent of plasmid spreading across different STs. This study is probably the first to report the coexistence of bla OXA-181/232 and bla NDM-5 in neonatal isolates. IMPORTANCE Neonatal sepsis is a leading cause of neonatal mortality in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Treatment of sepsis in this vulnerable population is dependent on antimicrobials, and resistance to these life-saving antimicrobials is worrisome. Carbapenemases, enzymes produced by bacteria, can make these antimicrobials useless. Our study describes how OXA-48-like carbapenemases in neonatal septicemic Klebsiella pneumoniae shows remarkable diversity in the genomes of the strains and relatedness with strains from other parts of world and also to some neonatal outbreak strains. It is also the first to describe such resistance due to coproduction of dual carbapenemases, (OXA)-48 and New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase-5, in Klebsiella pneumoniae from neonatal settings. Carbapenemase genes situated on plasmids within high-risk international clones, as seen here, increase the ease and transfer of resistant genetic material. With the WHO treatment protocols not adequately poised to handle such infections, prompt attention to neonatal health care is required., (Copyright © 2021 Naha et al.)

We describe transmission of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing Escherichia coli sequence type (ST) 1193 in a group home. E. coli ST1193 is an emerging multidrug-resistant clone not previously shown to carry carbapenemases in the United States. Our investigation illustrates the potential of residential group homes to amplify rare combinations of pathogens and resistance mechanisms.

Background: Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) have rapidly emerged in Europe, being responsible for nosocomial outbreaks., Aim: Following an outbreak in the burn unit of Ghent University Hospital, we investigated whether CPE can spread between toilets through drain water and therefrom be transmitted to patients., Methods: In 2017, the burn centre of our hospital experienced an outbreak of OXA-48-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae that affected five patients staying in three different rooms. Environmental samples were collected from the sink, shower, shower stretcher, hand rail of the bed, nursing carts, toilets, and drain water to explore a common source. Whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis was performed on K. pneumoniae outbreak isolates and two random K. pneumoniae isolates., Findings: OXA-48-producing K. pneumoniae was detected in toilet water in four out of six rooms and drain water between two rooms. The strain persisted in two out of six rooms after two months of daily disinfection with bleach. All outbreak isolates belonged to sequence type (ST) 15 and showed isogenicity (<15 allele differences). This suggests that the strain may have spread between rooms by drain water. Unexpectedly, one random isolate obtained from a patient who became colonized while residing at the geriatric ward clustered with the outbreak isolates, suggesting the outbreak to be larger than expected. Daily application of bleach tended to be superior to acetic acid to disinfect toilet water; however, disinfection did not completely prevent the presence of carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae in toilet water., Conclusion: Toilet drain water may be a potential source of hospital room-to-room transmission of carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to identify clonally-related carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae complex members that could be involved in outbreaks among hospitalized patients in Denmark, and to identify possible epidemiological links., Methods: From January 2014 to June 2018, 103 isolates belonging to the K. pneumoniae complex were collected from 102 patients. From the whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data, presence of genes encoding carbapenemase and multilocal sequence typing (MLST) data were extracted. Core genome MLST (cgMLST) cluster analysis was performed. Using data from the Danish National Patient Registry (DNPR) and reported travel history, presumptive outbreaks were investigated for possible epidemiological links., Results: The most common detected carbapenemase gene was bla OXA-48 , followed by bla NDM-1. The 103 K. pneumoniae complex isolates belonged to 47 sequence types (STs) and cgMLST subdivided the isolates into 80 different complex types. cgMLST identified 13 clusters with 2-4 isolates per cluster. For five of the 13 clusters, a direct link (the patients stayed at the same ward on the same day) could be detected between at least some of the patients. In two clusters, the patients resided simultaneously at the same hospital, but not the same ward. A possible link (same ward within 1-13 days) was detected for the patients in one cluster. For five clusters detected by cgMLST, no epidemiological link could be detected using data from DNPR., Conclusion: In this study, cgMLST combined with patient hospital admission data and travel information was found to be a reliable and detailed approach to detect possible clonal transmission of carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae complex members., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this work we compared the most frequently used Klebsiella pneumoniae typing methods: PFGE, cgMLST and coreSNP. We evaluated the discriminatory power of the three methods to confirm or exclude nosocomial transmission on K. pneumoniae strains isolated from January to December 2017, in the framework of the routine surveillance for multidrug-resistant organisms at the San Raffaele Hospital, in Milan. We compared the results of the different methods to the results of epidemiological investigation. Our results showed that cgMLST and coreSNP are more discriminant than PFGE, and that both approaches are suitable for transmission analyses. cgMLST appeared to be inferior to coreSNP in the K. pneumoniae CG258 phylogenetic reconstruction. Indeed, we found that the phylogenetic reconstruction based on cgMLST genes wrongly clustered ST258 clade1 and clade2 strains, conversely properly assigned by coreSNP approach. In conclusion, this study provides evidences supporting the reliability of both cgMLST and coreSNP for hospital surveillance programs and highlights the limits of cgMLST scheme genes for phylogenetic reconstructions.

Introduction. Transmission of Enterobacterales in neonatal intensive care units (NICU) can cause outbreaks of colonization and invasive infections among neonates. Two clusters of nosocomial transmission of Klebsiella pneumoniae identified by MALDI-ToF mass-spectrometry were suspected at two NICUs in July and August 2016. Aim. To assess the potential transmission of K. pneumoniae among neonates. Methodology. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was performed of K. pneumoniae isolates obtained through targeted surveillance of patients and environmental sampling. Results. WGS data revealed that patient and environmental isolates represented two species, K. pneumoniae and K. variicola . Core-genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST) of the isolates identified three separate transmission clusters, in Hospital A a cluster of K. pneumoniae isolates in 12 children and two environmental samples and a second cluster of K. variicola isolates in five children. In Hospital B a cluster of K. pneumoniae isolates from three children and five unrelated isolates of K. pneumoniae and two unrelated isolates of K. variicola were found. Conclusion. K. variicola can cause hospital outbreaks of colonization and infection similar to other Klebsiella spp.Preliminary results from this study were presented at the 27th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, April 22-25, 2018, Vienna, Austria.

Objectives: We present an updated picture (1/1/2017-31/08/2019) of the frequency of carbapenemase producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (CPKP) in surveillance rectal swabs (SRS) and in clinical samples (CS) of patients admitted to a tertiary level hospital, focusing on longitudinal evolution of CPKP detected in SRS and on colistin resistant strains., Methods: Retrospective longitudinal analysis. Only the first positive CPKP strain isolated from each patient was included., Results: 638 CPKP strains were identified (471 in SRS and 167 in CS). SRS frequency increased over time in the medical department, remained high in the surgical department (SD) and decreased in the intensive care department. Most SRS-71.3%-and 49.1% of CS had nosocomial origin; about half of the SRS were identified in the SD. Regarding SRS evolution, carriage was confirmed in 39.5% of patients, no more testing in 25.5%, clinical involvement in 24.8 %, and negative result in 10.2%. Rates of colistin resistance were 20.1% in 2017, 31.2% in 2018 and 26.9% in 2019., Conclusions: CPKP diffusion is still an important issue despite the surveillance program. It is vital to enhance medical staff's awareness on this because most CPKP first detections in SRS occurred during hospital stay due to a nosocomial acquisition with a comparable picture over time. Colistin resistance is increasing., (Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: In this study, we evaluated the genetic relatedness of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-KPN) isolates from an outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in August 2017, We implemented an active countermeasure to control this outbreak successfully., Methods: The incidence of healthcare-associated ESBL-KPN bacteremia was evaluated before and after initiating enhanced infection control (IC) practices in January 2018. Surveillance cultures were set up and monitored for neonates, medical personnel, and NICU environments. Molecular analyses, including pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), sequence typing, and ESBL genotyping, were performed for the isolated KPN strains., Results: After implementing the enhanced IC procedures, the healthcare-associated bacteremia rate decreased from 6.0 to 0.0 per 1000 patient-days. Samples from neonates (n = 11/15, 73.3%), medical personnel (n = 1/41, 2.4%), and medical devices and the environments (6/181, 3.3%) tested positive for ESBL-KPN in the surveillance cultures in December 2017. Active surveillance cultures revealed that 23 of 72 neonates who were screened (31.9%) were colonized with ESBL-KPN between January and March 2018. All the isolates demonstrated closely related PFGE patterns and were identified as ST307 strain carrying the CTX-M-15 gene., Conclusions: Contaminated NICU environments and medical devices, as well as transmission by medical personnel, appeared to be the source of the outbreak of ESBL-KPN infection. We employed an enhanced IC strategy during January-March 2018 and successfully controlled the clonal outbreak of CTX-M-15-positive KPN. ST307 has emerged as an important bacteremia-causing pathogen in the NICU and should be carefully monitored.

The microbiota primes immune defences but the identity of specific commensal microorganisms that protect against infection is unclear. Conversely, how pathogens compete with the microbiota to establish their host niche is also poorly understood. In the present study, we investigate the antagonism between the microbiota and Klebsiella pneumoniae during colonization and transmission. We discover that maturation of the microbiota drives the development of distinct immune defence programmes in the upper airways and intestine to limit K. pneumoniae colonization within these niches. Immune protection in the intestine depends on the development of Bacteroidetes, interleukin (IL)-36 signalling and macrophages. This effect of Bacteroidetes requires the polysaccharide utilization locus of their conserved commensal colonization factor. Conversely, in the upper airways, Proteobacteria prime immunity through IL-17A, but K. pneumoniae overcomes these defences through encapsulation to effectively colonize this site. Ultimately, we find that host-to-host spread of K. pneumoniae occurs principally from its intestinal reservoir, and that commensal-colonization-factor-producing Bacteroidetes are sufficient to prevent transmission between hosts through IL-36. Thus, our study provides mechanistic insight into when, where and how commensal Bacteroidetes protect against K. pneumoniae colonization and contagion, providing insight into how these protective microorganisms could be harnessed to confer population-level protection against K. pneumoniae infection.

Objectives: Epidemic spread of OXA-48-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae, mainly mediated by the transmission of a blaOXA-48-carrying plasmid, has threatened global health during the last decade. Since its introduction to Taiwan in 2013, OXA-48 has become the second most common carbapenemase. We described the transmission and evolution of an OXA-producing K. pneumoniae clone in a single hospital., Methods: Twenty-two OXA-48 K. pneumoniae were isolated between October 2013 and December 2015. Comparative genomic analysis was performed based on the WGS data generated with Illumina and MinION techniques., Results: Seventeen of the 22 OXA-48 K. pneumoniae that belonged to ST11, with the same capsular genotype, KL64, and differed from each other by seven or fewer SNPs, were considered outbreak strains. Eight of the 17 outbreak strains harboured a 65499 bp blaOXA-48-carrying IncL plasmid (called pOXA48). pOXA48 was absent from the remaining nine strains. Instead, a 24.9 kb blaOXA-48-carrying plasmid fragment was integrated into a prophage region of their chromosomes. Transmission routes of the ST11&#95;KL64 K. pneumoniae sublineages, which carried either pOXA48 or chromosomally integrated blaOXA-48, were reconstructed., Conclusions: Clonal expansion of ST11&#95;KL64 sublineages contributed to the nosocomial outbreak of OXA-48 K. pneumoniae. The chromosome-borne blaOXA-48 lineage emerged during a 2 year period in a single hospital. Dissemination of OXA-48, which is vertically transmitted in K. pneumoniae even in the absence of selective pressure from antimicrobials, deserves public health attention., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Klebsiella pneumoniae has been responsible for a large number of clonal hospital outbreaks. However, some epidemiological changes have been observed since the emergence of CTX-M enzymes in K. pneumoniae ., Aim: To analyse the transmission dynamics of Extended Spectrum β-Lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-Kp) in an acute care hospital., Methods: In 2015 a prospective cohort study was conducted. All new consecutive adult patients with ESBL-Kp isolates in all clinical samples were included. Patients with a previous known infection/colonization by ESBL-Kp and patients in high risk areas (e.g., intensive care units) were excluded. Cross-transmission was defined as the carriage of a clonally-related ESBL-Kp between newly diagnosed patients who shared the same ward for ≥48 h with another case, within a maximum time window of 4 weeks. ESBL-production was confirmed using the double-disk diffusion method and PCR. Clonal relationships were investigated by rep-PCR and multilocus sequence typing (MLST)., Results: Sixty ESBL-Kp isolates from 60 patients were included and analysed. Infections and colonizations were classified as hospital-acquired (52%), healthcare-related (40%) or community-acquired (8%).High genetic diversity was detected. When epidemiological clinical data were combined with the rep-PCR, the patterns identified did not show any cases of cross-transmission. ESBL-Kp were detected in 12.5% of environmental samples. No clonal relationship could be established between environmental reservoirs and patients. The genetic mechanism detected in all strains was associated with bla CTX-M genes, and 97% were CTX-M-15., Conclusions: The dynamics of ESBL- K. pneumoniae isolated in our setting could not be explained by clonal transmission from an index patient. A polyclonal spread of ESBL-Kp was identified., Competing Interests: Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© The Author(s). 2019.)

Objective: Nosocomial outbreaks due to multidrug-resistant microorganisms in rehabilitation centers have rarely been reported. We report an outbreak of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-K. pneumoniae) on a single ward in a rehabilitation center in Rotterdam, The Netherlands., Design: Outbreak description., Setting: A 40-bed ward of a rehabilitation center in the Netherlands., Methods: In October 2016, 2 patients were found to be colonized by genetically indistinguishable ESBL-K. pneumoniae isolates. Therefore, an outbreak management team was installed, by whom a contact tracing plan was made. In addition to general outbreak measures, specific measures were formulated to allow continuation of the rehabilitation process. Also, environmental cultures were taken. Multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis and amplification fragment-length polymorphism were used to determine strain relatedness. Selected isolates were subjected to whole-genome multilocus sequence typing., Results: The outbreak lasted 8 weeks. In total, 14 patients were colonized with an ESBL-K. pneumoniae, of whom 11 patients had an isolate belonging to sequence type 307. Overall, 163 environmental cultures were taken. Several sites of a household washing machine were repeatedly found to be contaminated with the outbreak strain. This machine was used to wash lifting slings and patient clothing contaminated with feces. The outbreak was contained after taking the machine temporarily out of service and implementing a reinforced and adapted protocol on the use of this machine., Conclusion: We conclude that in this outbreak, the route of transmission of the outbreak strain via the household washing machine played a major role.

Multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae is an increasing cause of infant mortality in developing countries. We aimed to develop a quantitative understanding of the drivers of this epidemic by estimating the effects of antibiotics on nosocomial transmission risk, comparing competing hypotheses about mechanisms of spread, and quantifying the impact of potential interventions. Using a sequence of dynamic models, we analysed data from a one-year prospective carriage study in a Cambodian neonatal intensive care unit with hyperendemic third-generation cephalosporin-resistant K. pneumoniae . All widely-used antibiotics except imipenem were associated with an increased daily acquisition risk, with an odds ratio for the most common combination (ampicillin + gentamicin) of 1.96 (95% CrI 1.18, 3.36). Models incorporating genomic data found that colonisation pressure was associated with a higher transmission risk, indicated sequence type heterogeneity in transmissibility, and showed that within-ward transmission was insufficient to maintain endemicity. Simulations indicated that increasing the nurse-patient ratio could be an effective intervention., Competing Interests: TC, PT, SP, SB, TN, NS, ND, CT, BC No competing interests declared, (© 2019, Crellen et al.)

Objective: Resistance to colistin, a last resort antibiotic, has emerged in India. We investigated colistin-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae(ColR-KP) in a hospital in India to describe infections, characterize resistance of isolates, compare concordance of detection methods, and identify transmission events., Design: Retrospective observational study., Methods: Case-patients were defined as individuals from whom ColR-KP was isolated from a clinical specimen between January 2016 and October 2017. Isolates resistant to colistin by Vitek 2 were confirmed by broth microdilution (BMD). Isolates underwent colistin susceptibility testing by disk diffusion and whole-genome sequencing. Medical records were reviewed., Results: Of 846 K. pneumoniae isolates, 34 (4%) were colistin resistant. In total, 22 case-patients were identified. Most (90%) were male; their median age was 33 years. Half were transferred from another hospital; 45% died. Case-patients were admitted for a median of 14 days before detection of ColR-KP. Also, 7 case-patients (32%) received colistin before detection of ColR-KP. All isolates were resistant to carbapenems and susceptible to tigecycline. Isolates resistant to colistin by Vitek 2 were also resistant by BMD; 2 ColR-KP isolates were resistant by disk diffusion. Moreover, 8 multilocus sequence types were identified. Isolates were negative for mobile colistin resistance (mcr) genes. Based on sequencing analysis, in-hospital transmission may have occurred with 8 case-patients (38%)., Conclusions: Multiple infections caused by highly resistant, mcr-negative ColR-KP with substantial mortality were identified. Disk diffusion correlated poorly with Vitek 2 and BMD for detection of ColR-KP. Sequencing indicated multiple importation and in-hospital transmission events. Enhanced detection for ColR-KP may be warranted in India.

The occurrence of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) poses a considerable risk for public health. The gene for Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-2 (KPC-2) has been reported in many countries worldwide, and KPC-2-producing strains are mainly of human origin. In this study, we identified two novel hybrid plasmids that carry either bla KPC-2 or the fosfomycin resistance gene fosA3 in the multiresistant K. pneumoniae isolate K15 of swine origin in China. The bla KPC-2 -bearing plasmid pK15-KPC was a fusion derivative of an IncF33:A-:B- incompatibility group (Inc) plasmid and chromosomal sequences of K. pneumoniae (CSKP). A 5-bp direct target sequence duplication (GACTA) was identified at the boundaries of the CSKP, suggesting that the integration might have been due to a transposition event. The bla KPC-2 gene on pK15-KPC was in a derivative of ΔTn 6296-1 The multireplicon fosA3 -carrying IncN-IncR plasmid pK15-FOS also showed a mosaic structure, possibly originating from a recombination between an epidemic fosA3 -carrying pHN7A8-like plasmid and a pKPC-LK30-like IncR plasmid. Stability tests demonstrated that both novel hybrid plasmids were stably maintained in the original host without antibiotic selection but were lost from the transformants after approximately 200 generations. This is apparently the first description of a porcine sequence type 11 (ST11) K. pneumoniae isolate coproducing KPC-2 and FosA3 via pK15-KPC and pK15-FOS, respectively. The multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype of this high-risk K. pneumoniae isolate may contribute to its spread and its persistence. IMPORTANCE The global dissemination of carbapenem resistance genes is of great concern. Animals are usually considered a reservoir of resistance genes and an important source of human infection. Although carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae strains of animal origin have been reported increasingly, bla KPC-2 -positive strains from food-producing animals are still rare. In this study, we first describe the isolation and characterization of a carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae ST11 isolate, strain K15, which is of pig origin and coproduces KPC-2 and FosA3 via two novel hybrid plasmids. Furthermore, our findings highlight that this ST11 Klebsiella pneumoniae strain K15 is most likely of human origin and could be easily transmitted back to humans via direct contact or food intake. In light of our findings, significant attention must be paid to monitoring the prevalence and further evolution of bla KPC-2 -carrying plasmids among the Enterobacteriaceae strains of animal origin., (Copyright © 2019 Zhang et al.)

Background: Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) are the important pathogens causing pneumonia. This study aimed to investigate the clinical characteristics and molecular epidemiology of ESBL-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae causing pneumonia at a large teaching hospital in China., Methods: We collected patient's clinical data and ESBL-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae strains causing pneumonia (from December 2015 to June 2016) at a hospital in Wuhan. The susceptibilities, multi-locus sequence typing, homologous analysis, ESBL genes by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing were determined., Results: A total of 59 ESBL-producing strains (31 E. coli and 28 K. pneumoniae) isolated from patients with pneumonia were analyzed. The majority of strains were isolated from patients were with hospital-acquired pneumonia (37/59, 62.7%), followed by community-acquired pneumonia (13/59, 22.0%), and ventilator-related pneumonia (9/59, 15.3%). The E. coli ST131 (9 isolates, 29.0%) and K. pneumoniae ST11 (5 isolates, 17.9%) were the predominant sub-types. The most prevalent ESBL gene was CTX-M-14, followed by SHV-77, CTX-M-3, SHV-11, and CTX-M-27. At least 33 (55.9%) of the ESBL-producing strains carried two or more ESBL genes. The ISEcp1 and IS26 were found upstream of all blaCTX-M (CTX-Ms) and of most blaSHV (SHVs) (57.6%), respectively. Moreover, three ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae ST11 strains which were resistant to carbapenems carried the blaNDM-1 and blaKPC-2, two of which also bearing blaOXA-48 were resistant to all antibiotics (including Tigecycline)., Conclusions: Hospital-acquired pneumonia is more likely correlated with ESBL-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae. ESBL-producing E. coli ST131 and multi-drug resistance ESBL-producing, as well as New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) and Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemases-2 (KPC-2) bearing K. pneumoniae ST11 are spreading in patients with pneumonia in hospital.

In the past several decades, the incidence of Klebsiella pneumoniae harboring resistance mechanisms against multiple antibiotic agents has increased on a global scale. We discuss reasons for ongoing transmission of multidrug-resistant K. pneumoniae in healthcare settings, which has resulted in the successful spread and establishment of this pathogen. It is now one of the most important causes of healthcare-associated infections worldwide.

Here we describe an outbreak due to NDM-1+CTX-M-15+DHA-1-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (NDM-1-Kp) in Spain related to a patient previously admitted to a healthcare centre in an endemic area (Pakistan). Nine colonised patients were detected in the Neurosurgery ward between September 2015 and February 2016 during the R-GNOSIS European Project. NDM-1-Kp isolates from clinical samples were also recovered in three of these patients. Surveillance culture at admission was negative in the index case, but NDM-1-Kp colonisation was detected 27 days later after receiving antibiotic treatment. Co-colonisation with a second NDM-1-Kp isolate was identified in this patient 61 days post-admission. Overall length of stay (LOS = 75 days) (P < 0.01) and LOS until carbapenemase detection (LOS-1 = 36 days) was longer in NDM-1-Kp carriers than in patients with other carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales. Intervention strategies were implemented after the outbreak declaration and NDM-1-Kp transmission was contained. Among the NDM-1-Kp isolates, two clones [ST437 (index case and Patient 2) and ST101 (index case and Patients 3-9)] with different IncFIB NDM-1-containing plasmids were identified. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a high content of antimicrobial resistance genes in both isolates in addition to a large number of virulence factors. Colonisation with other epidemic (OXA-48-ST11-K. pneumoniae and VIM-1-ST54-K. pneumoniae) and non-epidemic (VIM-1-ST908-K. pneumoniae and VIM-ST431-Escherichia coli) clones was also detected in two NDM-1 carriers. Implementation of adequate infection control measures and uninterrupted active surveillance programmes for detecting patients with a low colonisation status are crucial to prevent the introduction and dissemination of NDM-type enzymes in our region., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. and International Society of Chemotherapy. All rights reserved.)

Background: The Gram-negative bacterium Klebsiella pneumoniae is a frequent pathogen causing outbreaks in neonatal intensive care units. Some Enterobacteriaceae can acquire the ability to sequester iron from infected tissue by secretion of iron-chelating compounds such as yersiniabactin. Here we describe an outbreak and clinical management of infections because of a highly virulent yersiniabactin-producing, nonmultiresistant K. pneumoniae strain in a neonatal intensive care unit. Outbreak investigation and effectiveness assessment of multidisciplinary infection control measurements to prevent patient-to-patient transmission of highly pathogenic K. pneumoniae were undertaken., Methods: Outbreak cases were identified by isolation of K. pneumoniae from blood or stool of infants. Clinical data were abstracted from medical charts. K. pneumoniae isolates were genotyped using whole genome sequencing, and yersiniabactin production was evaluated by luciferase assay., Results: Fourteen cases were confirmed with 8 symptomatic and 6 colonized patients. Symptomatic patients were infants of extremely low gestational and chronologic age with fulminant clinical courses including necrotizing enterocolitis and sepsis. Whole genome sequencing for bacterial isolates confirmed the presence of an outbreak. All outbreak isolates produced yersiniabactin., Conclusions: Yersiniabactin-producing K. pneumoniae can display a high pathogenicity in extremely premature infants with low chronologic age. This outbreak also underlines the considerable potential of today's infection control systems for recognizing and controlling nosocomial infections in highly vulnerable populations.

Asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) has been consistently observed in pregnancy. However, there is a paucity of data on the prevalence and characteristics of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in ASB in pregnant women. Therefore, we sought to investigate ESBL-producing and multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae in antenatal women with ASB. Urine samples were collected from 310 asymptomatic pregnant women attending primary antenatal clinics and screened for significant bacteriuria. Isolates of Enterobacteriaceae were phenotypically tested for their ESBL production. ESBL genes (CTX-M, TEM, and SHV genes) were then amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Multiplex PCRs were used to perform phylogenetic typing of ESBL-producing Escherichia coli isolates and to examine the commonality of sequence type 131 (ST131)-O25b and ST131-O16. A total of 103 (33.2%) pregnant women were positive for significant bacteriuria (80 Enterobacteriaceae). Of these isolates, 32.5% ( n  = 26) were ESBL producers and had a higher rate of multidrug resistance than non-ESBL producers. Genotypic characterization of ESBL-producing isolates showed that 84.6% had the bla CTX-M gene ( bla CTX-M-15  = 77.3%; bla CTX-M-9  = 18.2%). None of the isolates were of the TEM or SHV type. Half of the ESBL-producing E. coli isolates were of the phylogroup B2, and 4 (20%) isolates were of the ST131-O16 clonal subgroup. This study is the first in Egypt to provide evidence for the high prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in pregnant women with ASB. It also represents an important step toward genotypic characterization of this resistant form of bacteria, which may be useful for future antimicrobial studies.

This study aimed to characterize the fecal colonization and sharing of Klebsiella pneumoniae strains between companion animals and humans living in close contact. Fecal samples were collected from 50 healthy participants (24 humans, 18 dogs, and 8 cats) belonging to 18 households. Samples were plated onto MacConkey agar (MCK) plates with and without cefotaxime or meropenem supplementation. Up to five K. pneumoniae colonies per participant were compared by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) after XbaI restriction. K. pneumoniae strains with unique pulse types from each participant were characterized for antimicrobial susceptibility, virulence genes, and multilocus sequence type (MLST). Fecal K. pneumoniae pulse types were compared to those of clinical K. pneumoniae strains from animal and human patients with urinary tract infections ( n  = 104). K. pneumoniae colonization was detected in nonsupplemented MCK in around 38% of dogs ( n  = 7) and humans ( n  = 9). K. pneumoniae strains isolated from dogs belonged to sequence type 17 (ST17), ST188, ST252, ST281, ST423, ST1093, ST1241, ST3398, and ST3399. None of the K. pneumoniae strains were multidrug resistant or hypervirulent. Two households included multiple colonized participants. Notably, two colonized dogs within household 15 (H15) shared a strain each (ST252 and ST1241) with one coliving human. One dog from H16 shared one PFGE-undistinguishable K. pneumoniae ST17 strain with two humans from different households; however, the antimicrobial susceptibility phenotypes of these three strains differed. Two main virulence genotypes were detected, namely fimH-1 mrkD ycfM entB kfu and fimH-1 mrkD ycfM entB kpn These results highlight the potential role of dogs as a reservoir of K. pneumoniae to humans and vice versa. Furthermore, to our best knowledge, this is the first report of healthy humans and dogs sharing K. pneumoniae strains that were undistinguishable by PFGE/MLST., (Copyright © 2019 American Society for Microbiology.)

This study investigated the molecular and phenotypic characteristics of carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae, and identified the risk factors underlying its acquisition. We evaluated K. pneumoniae isolated in Nagasaki University Hospital between January 2009 and June 2015. The presence of carbapenemase genes and plasmid characteristics were investigated. We performed multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and generated a dendrogram based on the results of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) for carbapenemase-producing strains. We also performed a case-control study of patients. Of the 88 K. pneumoniae strains that showed minimum inhibitory concentration ≥1 μg/mL for imipenem and/or meropenem, and that were available from our bacterial collection, 18 had the IMP-type carbapenemase gene, all of which were IMP-1 according to sequencing analysis. Strains included seven different sequence types (STs), of which the most common was ST1471. A dendrogram showed the significant similarity of some strains with relationships in PFGE patterns, STs, and the wards in which they were isolated. Plasmid incompatibility group was similar among the IMP-1 producers. Regarding risk factors, multivariate analysis showed that liver disease and previous uses of carbapenems and anti-fungal drugs were significant factors for the acquisition of IMP-1-producing strains. Our results demonstrate that IMP-1 is a major carbapenemase produced by K. pneumoniae. The PFGE results indicated the possibility of transmission in the hospital. The identified risk factors should be considered for appropriate antibiotic therapy and infection-control measures., (Copyright © 2018 Japanese Society of Chemotherapy and The Japanese Association for Infectious Diseases. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The incidence of nosocomial infections due to carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae is increasing worldwide. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) can help elucidate the transmission route of nosocomial pathogens., Methods: We combined WGS and epidemiological data to analyze an outbreak of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM)-producing K. pneumoniae that occurred in 2 Belgian hospitals situated about 50 miles apart. We characterized 74 NDM-producing K. pneumoniae isolates (9 from hospital A, 24 from hospital B, and 41 contemporary isolates from 15 other Belgian hospitals) using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and WGS., Results: A K. pneumoniae sequence type 716 clone was identified as being responsible for the outbreak with all 9 strains from hospital A and 20 of 24 from hospital B sharing a unique pulsotype and being clustered together at WGS (compared with 1 of 41 isolates from other Belgian hospitals). We identified the outpatient clinic of hospital B as the probable bridging site between the hospitals after combining epidemiological, phylogenetic, and resistome data. We also identified the patient who probably caused the transmission. In fact, all but 1 strain from hospital A carried a Tn1331-like transposon, whereas none of the hospital B isolates did. The patient from hospital A who did not have the Tn1331-like transposon was treated at the outpatient clinic of hospital B on the same day as the first NDM-producing K. pneumoniae-positive patient from hospital B., Conclusions: The results from our WGS-guided investigation highlight the importance of implementing adequate infection control measures in outpatient settings, especially when healthcare delivery moves from acute care facilities to outpatient clinics., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: To identify transmission patterns of Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae infection during an outbreak at a large, tertiary care hospital and to detect whether the outbreak organisms spread to other facilities in the integrated healthcare network., Methods: We analyzed 71 K. pneumoniae whole genome sequences collected from clinical specimens before, during and after the outbreak and reviewed corresponding patient medical records. Sequence and patient data were used to model probable transmissions and assess factors associated with the outbreak., Results: We identified close genetic relationships among carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae isolates sampled during the study period. Transmission tree analysis combined with patient records uncovered extended periods of silent colonization in many study patients and transmission routes that were likely the result of asymptomatic patients transitioning between facilities., Conclusions: Detecting how and where Carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae infections spread is challenging in an environment of rising prevalence, asymptomatic carriage and mobility of patients. Whole genome sequencing improved the precision of investigating inter-facility transmissions. Our results emphasize that containment of Carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae infections requires coordinated efforts between healthcare networks and settings of care that acknowledge and mitigate transmission risk conferred by undetected carriage and by patient transfers between facilities., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase- (ESBL-) producing Klebsiella (K.) pneumoniae and Escherichia (E.) coli are of critical importance in human and veterinary medicine. Animal food products, especially broiler chickens, are discussed as a possible source for the exposure of humans with antibiotic resistant bacteria. Although the occurrence and vertical transmission of ESBL-/AmpC-producing Enterobacteriaceae in the broiler production has been reported before, detailed investigations concerning the dissemination along the slaughter processing line are missing. In this study, we investigated cross-contamination with ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae during the processing of two different broiler flocks in one slaughterhouse. The ESBL-status during the fattening period of the flocks was determined and environmental samples from the slaughterhouse were taken before processing of the respective flocks. These isolates were compared to those found in samples from the carcasses after processing using whole genome sequencing. Phylogenetic analyses of seven ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae and 14 E. coli revealed close relationships between isolates from scalding water and the defeathering machine, respectively, which were collected before the processing of the broiler flocks, to those isolates found in samples from skin and filet of the respective flock carcasses. In conclusion, using high resolution molecular data we found evidence for the cross-contamination of carcasses with ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae during scalding and defeathering in the slaughterhouse., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Following the alarming outbreak of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumonia (CRKP) in five intensive care units (ICUs) of a tertiary care hospital in China, a prospective investigation of CRKP colonized/infected patients was conducted., Aim: To describe the diffusion and transmission of CRKP among epidemiologically linked ICU patients, staff and environment., Methods: Enhanced CRKP infected/colonized case monitoring was performed by the real-time nosocomial infection surveillance system (RT-NISS). The immediate surroundings of each CRKP patient bed unit and the staff hands/gloves/gowns were sampled and then evaluated for the presence of CRKP. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) were used to identify and to characterize these isolates., Findings: Among 2750 patients monitored, 67 CRKP patients were newly labeled and 11 patients' CRKP isolates were available. A total of 31.34% (21/67) bed units were positive at one or more surrounding surfaces, 7.99% (49/613) environmental samples and 3.57% (4/112) ICU staff samples were CRKP positive. The selected CRKP isolates (N = 64) exhibited intermediate to high resistance levels to the antibiotics tested apart from colistin and tigecycline. RT-NISS data combined with MLST and PFGE revealed nine likely transmission clusters. WGS analysis of these CRKP isolates revealed extensive sharing of multiple antimicrobial resistance genes and plasmid replicons among these isolates. Two carbapenemase genes bla KPC-2 (62/64) and bla OXA-48 (2/64) were identified. These CRKP isolates carried one or more plasmid replicons., Conclusions: The contamination of ICU environment and staff's hands, gloves or gowns is frequent with CRKP patients. Our study also supports the hypothesis that an association between environmental contamination and transmission of CRKP bacteria in ICUs., (Copyright © 2018 The Healthcare Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Culture-independent methods that target genome fragments have shown promise in identifying certain pathogens, but the holy grail of comprehensive pathogen genome detection from microbiologically complex samples for subsequent forensic analyses remains a challenge. In the context of an investigation of a nosocomial outbreak, we used shotgun metagenomic sequencing of a human fecal sample and a neural network algorithm based on tetranucleotide frequency profiling to reconstruct microbial genomes and tested the same approach using rectal swabs from a second patient. The approach rapidly and readily detected the genome of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing K. pneumoniae in the patient fecal specimen and in the rectal swab sample, achieving a level of strain resolution that was sufficient for confident transmission inference during a highly clonal outbreak. The analysis also detected previously unrecognized colonization of the patient by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium , another multidrug-resistant bacterium. IMPORTANCE The study results reported here perfectly demonstrate the power and promise of clinical metagenomics to recover genome sequences of important drug-resistant bacteria and to rapidly provide rich data that inform outbreak investigations and treatment decisions, independently of the need to culture the organisms., (Copyright © 2019 Mu et al.)

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens is an all-too-common consequence of antibiotic use. Although antibiotic resistance among virulent bacterial pathogens is a growing concern, the highest levels of antibiotic resistance occur among less pathogenic but more common bacteria that are prevalent in healthcare settings. Patient-to-patient transmission of these antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a perpetual concern in hospitals. Many of these resistant microbes, such as vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae , emerge from the intestinal lumen and invade the bloodstream of vulnerable patients, causing disseminated infection. These infections are associated with preceding antibiotic administration, which changes the intestinal microbiota and compromises resistance to colonization by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Recent and ongoing studies are increasingly defining commensal bacterial species and the inhibitory mechanisms they use to prevent infection. The use of next-generation probiotics derived from the intestinal microbiota represents an alternative approach to prevention of infection by enriching colonization with protective commensal species, thereby reducing the density of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and also reducing patient-to-patient transmission of infection in healthcare settings., (© 2018 Keith and Pamer.)

Background: The emergence of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CR-KP) has become a significant problem worldwide and also being a major threat to children and newborns. Here we report an outbreak of NDM-1-producing K. pneumoniae in a neonatal unit., Results: Six CR-KP strains, isolated from neonates with symptoms of infection, were identified using a VITEK-2 compact system, and the clinical data were retrieved from the electronic case records. In vitro susceptibility testing with broth dilution method showed that all six K. pneumoniae isolates were resistant to carbapenems and susceptible to colistin, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones and tigecycline. Based on the polymerase chain reaction results, each isolate was found to be bla NDM-1 gene positive. Clonal relationships were analysed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and showed that two different PFGE patterns were formed, which belonged to sequence types ST234 and ST1412. Plasmids carrying bla NDM-1 were successfully transferred from four of the six isolates to an Escherichia coli recipient through conjugative assays. S1-PFGE and Southern blot hybridization showed that four NDM-1-producing K. pneumoniae were clonal and carried bla NDM-1 on the same plasmid. The outbreak was effectively controlled by reducing the potential infection sources. All the patients were successfully treated and recovered after receiving an increased dose of carbapenems. Although the source of this outbreak was not clear, comprehensive measures were carried out and the outbreak was effectively controlled., Conclusions: ST234 and ST1412 of NDM-1-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae are the resistant clone spread in the neonatal unit, comprehensive infection control measures and optimized carbapenem therapy played an important role in controlling this NDM-1-producing K. pneumoniae outbreak.

A genome sequence-based analysis of 74 carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) from 12 hospitals in Sichuan, China, revealed that the isolates carried blaKPC-2 (n = 48), blaNDM (n = 22), or blaIMP-4 (n = 4) were identified as K. pneumoniae (n = 67), Klebsiella variicola (n = 5), and Klebsiella quasipneumoniae (n = 2) and belonged to 19 sequence types. Both inter- and intrahospital transmission of multiple ST11 strains was identified. There is an urgent need for all hospitals in a given region to coordinate actions against CRKP.