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Nasal nitric oxide (nNO) is extremely low in most people with primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) and its measurement is an important contributor to making the diagnosis. Existing guidelines and technical standards focus on nNO measurements in older, cooperative children using chemiluminescence analysers. However, measurements of nNO in pre-school-age children (age 2-5 years) may facilitate early diagnosis and electrochemical rather than chemiluminescence analysers are widely used. Pre-schoolers often need different methods to be employed when measuring nNO. Hence, a European Respiratory Society Task Force has developed this technical standard as the first step towards standardising sampling, analysis and reporting of nNO measured as part of the diagnostic testing for PCD in all age groups, including pre-school-age children. Furthermore, we considered both chemiluminescence and electrochemical analysers that are in use worldwide. There was a paucity of quality evidence for electrochemical analysers and sampling methods used in young children, and the Task Force proposes future research priorities to allow updates of this technical standard., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest: N. Beydon reports educational writing payments as a member of the HERMES examination committee for paediatric respiratory medicine of the European Respiratory Society, and a leadership role as Chair of Group 07.01 of the European Respiratory Society (Paediatric respiratory physiology and sleep), outside the submitted work. P. Latzin reports grants from Vertex and OM Pharma, lecture honoraria from Vertex, Vifor and OM Pharma, and advisory board participation from Polyphor, Santhera (DMC), Vertex, Vifor, OM Pharma and Sanofi Aventis, outside the submitted work. S.D. Davis reports grants from the National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, to support the present manuscript, and consulting fees from Parion Sciences and ReCode Therapeutics, and advisory board participation for the PCD Foundation, outside the submitted work. T. Ferkol reports grants from the National Institutes of Health (HL096458) to support the present manuscript, and grants from the National Institutes of Health (HL116211, HL125241, AI146999), National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC1043768) and Parion Sciences, advisory board participation for the PCD Foundation, Parion Sciences and Translate Bio, and is past president and executive board member of the American Thoracic Society, outside the submitted work. J.S. Lucas reports grants from AAIR Charity and NIHR Research for patient benefit, and consulting fees from Translate Bio, outside the submitted work. All other authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright ©The authors 2023. For reproduction rights and permissions contact permissions@ersnet.org.)

Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a genetic disease of ciliary function leading to chronic upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms. The diagnosis is frequently overlooked because the symptoms are nonspecific and the knowledge about the disease in the primary care setting is poor. Additionally, none of the available tests is accurate enough to be used in isolation. These tests are expensive, and need sophisticated equipment and expertise to analyse and interpret results; diagnosis is therefore only available at highly specialised centres. The diagnosis is particularly challenging in countries with limited resources due to the lack of such costly equipment and expertise.In this review, we discuss the importance of early and accurate diagnosis especially for countries where the disease is clinically prevalent but diagnostic tests are lacking. We review the diagnostic tests available in specialised centres (nasal nitric oxide, high-speed video microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, immunofluorescence and genetics). We then consider modifications that might be considered in less well-resourced countries whilst maintaining acceptable accuracy., (Copyright ©ERS 2017.)

Nadirah Damseh,1 Nada Quercia,1,2 Nisreen Rumman,3 Sharon D Dell,4 Raymond H Kim5 1Division of Clinical and Metabolic Genetics, 2Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; 3Pediatric Department, Makassed Hospital, Jerusalem, Palestine; 4Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Hospital for Sick Children, 5Fred A Litwin Family Centre in Genetic Medicine, University Health Network and Mount Sinai Hospital, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada Abstract: Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a genetically heterogeneous disorder of motile cilia that is predominantly inherited in an autosomal-recessive fashion. It is associated with abnormal ciliary structure and/or function leading to chronic upper and lower respiratory tract infections, male infertility, and situs inversus. The estimated prevalence of primary ciliary dyskinesia is approximately one in 10,000–40,000 live births. Diagnosis depends on clinical presentation, nasal nitric oxide, high-speed video-microscopy analysis, transmission electron microscopy, genetic testing, and immunofluorescence. Here, we review its clinical features, diagnostic methods, molecular basis, and available therapies. Keywords: genetic testing, Kartagener’s syndrome, primary ciliary dyskinesia