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Die halbjährliche Zeitumstellung führt immer wieder zu heftigen Diskussionen, ob die damit verbundenen Unannehmlichkeiten durch eine entsprechende Energieersparnis gerechtfertigt sind. Die Autoren haben die Stromersparnis für die Optionen Sommerzeit und Winterzeit (Status quo), nur Winterzeit und nur Sommerzeit berechnet. Sie kommen zu dem überraschenden Ergebnis, dass die höchste Stromersparnis erreicht wird, wenn ausschließlich Sommerzeit gelten würde. This paper presents an investigation into the extent to which seasonal time adjustments (summer and winter time) lead to energy savings for private households. The work is based on data from two selected electricity providers in the cities of Kassel and Kempten. By means of a multiple regression model, the electricity utilization of German households was explained with respect to hours of darkness, temperature and global radiation. These variables formed the basis for calculating scenarios with and without seasonal time adjustments. On a comparative basis, summer time throughout the year is associated with the greatest energy savings. We argue that the reason for this is that the highest energy consumption can be observed in the evenings, and continual summer time takes the greatest advantage of the available light of the evening hours.

We examine monthly variation in weekly work hours using data for 2003-10 from the Current Population Survey (CPS) on hours/worker, from the Current Employment Survey (CES) on hours/job, and from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) on both. The ATUS data minimize recall difficulties and constrain hours of work to accord with total available time. The ATUS hours/worker are less cyclical than the CPS series, but the hours/job are more cyclical than the CES series. We present alternative estimates of productivity based on ATUS data and find that it is more pro-cyclical than other productivity measures.

This paper introduces a static structural model of hours of market labor supply, time spent on child care and other domestic work, and bought in child care for married or cohabiting mothers with pre-school age children. The father's behavior is taken as given. The main goal is to analyze the sensitivity of hours of market work, parental child care, other household production and formal child care to the wage rate, the price of child care, taxes, benefits and child care subsidies. To account for the non-convex nature of the budget sets and, possibly, the household technology, a discrete choice model is used. The model is estimated using the HILDA dataset, a rich household survey of the Australian population, which contains detailed information on time use, child care demands and the corresponding prices. Simulations based on the estimates show that the time allocations of women with pre-school children are highly sensitive to changes in wages and the costs of child care. A policy simulation suggests that labor force participation and hours of market work would increase substantially in a fiscal system based solely on individual rather than joint taxation.

This paper discusses research questions related to immigrants' time use, reviews conceptual and methodological approaches to examining time allocations, and reviews evidence from previous studies. It provides new descriptive evidence, using time-diary data from the American Time Use Survey. Although results vary with the country of origin, immigrant men in the U.S. tend to devote more time to market work and sleeping but less time to housework, community activities, and leisure than native men. Immigrant women tend to devote more time to housework, caregiving and sleep but less time to market work, community activities, and leisure than native women.

The present paper analyzes intergenerational correlations in leisure time use between parents and their adult children in order to gain an understanding of the importance of genetics and early childhood learning mechanisms in preference formation. Data from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) is used to regress time use choices of children on the behavior of their parents after the former have left to form their own household. A principal component analysis on eight time use items reveals two identifiable components, associated with personal leisure time use outside the home, and voluntary work. Estimations find substantial and significant correlations for both components, but suggest that the variance in filial behavior explained by the variance in parental behavior is limited, ranging from 17% to 32% for personal leisure time use, and from 2% to 7% for voluntary work. Moreover we provide evidence that direct transmission of parental preferences to their children accounts for roughly 20% of the observable similarity between the two generations. These results are robust to a wide array of robustness checks, including changes in estimation technique, model specification, and data restrictions, and suggest that these correlations can be ascribed to preference transmission from parental to filial generation rather than to coordination between generations. Aside from adding to the growing economic literature on preference transmission models, it also provides empirical support for the strong impact of non-parental sources of preferences formation, voiced particularly in models of dual inheritance.

Time-diary data from 27 countries show a negative relationship between real GDP per capita and female-male differences in total work time-work for pay and work at home. In rich non-Catholic countries on four continents men and women do about the same average amount of total work. Survey results demonstrate, however, that labor economists, macroeconomists, sociologists and the general public believe that women work more. The widespread average equality does not arise from gender differences in the price of time, from intra-family bargaining or from spousal complementarity. Several theories, including ones based on social norms, might explain these findings and are consistent with cross-national evidence from the World Values Surveys and sets of microeconomic data from Australia and Germany.

We examine family time together using data from the 2003-2010 American Time Use Survey combined with Bureau of Labor Statistics data on state-level unemployment rates. Couple time together is U-shaped; while fathers spend more time engaging in enriching childcare activities without a spouse present as the unemployment rate rises. Patterns are similar for dual-earner couples, but appear concentrated among demographic groups most affected by recessions. We also find that mothers are less likely to work standard hours and more likely to work on weekends as employment crises deepen, which is consistent with both sets of results for family time together.

Do negative incentives or sticks in education improve student outcomes? Since the late 1980s, several U.S. states have introduced No Pass No Drive (NPND) laws that set minimum academic requirements for teenagers to obtain driving licenses. Using data from the American Community Survey (ACS) and Monitoring the Future (MTF), we exploit variation across state, time, and cohort to show that NPND laws led to a 6.4 percentage point increase in the probability of graduating from high school among black males. Further, we show that NPND laws were effective in reducing truancy and increased time allocated to school-work at the expense of leisure and work.

The time devoted to housework in couple households is substantial. Research on intrahousehold time allocations has generally assumed that housework is a necessary evil and that the partner with the lower opportunity cost of time in the market will devote more time to home production. In reality, households/individuals are likely motivated to maximize happiness, and preferences regarding even mundane household chores differ considerably. We use information on preferences, opportunity costs, and time use from the 2000-2001 United Kingdom Time Use Survey to examine the time partners spend doing laundry, ironing, cleaning, and food shopping. While compared with other household chores such as gardening and do-it-yourself repairs, the selected activities are generally less enjoyable, preferences do vary across the population and are correlated with reported time use. Joint multivariate analysis of his and her time on weekend and weekday days as well as maid service reveals that her opportunity cost of time matters substantially more than his, but that his preferences play a greater role than hers.

How would people spend time if confronted by permanent declines in market work? We identify preferences off exogenous cuts in legislated standard hours that raised employers' overtime costs in Japan around 1990 and Korea in the early 2000s. Using time-diaries from before and after these shocks, we estimate the probability that an individual would have been affected by the reform. Reduced-form estimates show that the direct effect on a newly-constrained worker was a substantial reduction in market time, with the free-up time in Japan reallocated to leisure and personal maintenance, while in Korea the results are mixed, showing some impact on household production. Simulations using GMM estimates of a Stone-Geary utility function defined over time use suggest no effect on household production in either country. Estimation of a household model shows only slight evidence that spouses shared the time gift, nor that one spouse's allocation of non-market time changed when the other spouse's market work was permanently and exogenously reduced.

This paper analyzes the relationship between time allocation decisions of the unemployed, gender, and regional unemployment rates. Using the Spanish Time Use Survey 2002-2003 and 2009-2010, we find that higher regional unemployment rates are associated with increases in the time devoted to study by men, and to household production by women, and with decreases in the time devoted to personal care by men and leisure by women. We also find evidence favoring consumption smoothing as the channel through which others' unemployment affects time allocation decisions of the unemployed. As higher regional unemployment rates imply a lower availability of jobs for the unemployed, it decreases the expectations individuals have of finding a job, and thus households may try to increase their time spent on household production to reduce the market expenditures needed to maintain their consumption. We interpret our results as evidence that others' unemployment has several effects that need to be considered in the analysis of the wellbeing of the unemployed during business cycles.

We analyze the causal effect of the length of the worker's commute on worker's productivity, by examining whether commuting time has any effect on worker's labour market supply. Using the Spanish Time Use Survey 2002-03, our GMM/IV estimation yields a positive causal impact of commuting time on the time devoted to the labour market, with one hour of commuting increasing the time devoted to the labour market by 35 minutes in a working day. Our results shed light on the relationship between commuting and workers behaviour, since daily labour supply should be considered in theoretical models to provide a comprehensive view of commuter behaviour.

A model with two different production sectors and endogenous growth based on the accumulation of sector-specific human capital due to learning-by-doing is presented. Accumulation of experience is measured by means of sectoral production output aggregated over time. Growth is controlled by a dynamic optimisation of the use of time for working in the different sectors or for leisure. Transitional dynamics of production growth, especially of structural change towards a 'new' sector (with relatively scarce experience), of the optimal sectoral distribution of working time and of leisure as well as the corresponding steady state levels are derived and a numerical simulation is performed.

Extending the traditional income poverty concept by multidimensional poverty has been of growing interest within the last years. This paper contributes with an analysis of interdependent multidimensional (IMD) poverty intensity of time and income, which in particular restricts social participation. The interdependency of the multiple poverty dimensions under a strong (union approach) and weak focus axiom (compensation approach) are regarded in particular when measuring the intensity of multidimensional poverty. In addition to various poverty gap measures including the multidimensional well-being gap, for the first time we propose a minimum multidimensional poverty gap (2DGAP). To respect Sen's capability approach with its social participation aspects we define the time dimension as genuine personal leisure time. Based on a CES well-being function and a multidimensional poverty line evaluated by the German population (estimated with the German Socio-Economic Panel) the individual poverty intensity of the active population is analysed for various regimes of multiple poverty. For this purpose the German Time Use Surveys 1991/92 and 2001/02 and its time use diary data are used. Analysing the active population this paper contributes too to the poverty situation of the working poor. All the empirical results, including the microeconometric Heckman type estimation of the IMD poverty intensity (2DGAP) and the IMD poverty risk, indicate the overall importance of the time dimension with its social participation aspect incorporated within an interdependent multidimensional time and income poverty approach. An important dimension would be neglected in the poverty analysis and in targeted poverty policies if time additional to income would is not respected. Die Erweiterung des traditionellen einkommensbasierten Armutskonzepts durch multidimensionale Armutsansätze hat in den letzten Jahren wachsendes Interesse gefunden. Die vorliegende Studie liefert dazu einen Beitrag mit einer Analyse der Intensität interdependenter multidimensionaler (IMD) Armut mit Zeit und Einkommen als Armutsdimensionen. Die Interdependenz der multiplen Armutsdimensionen wird unter dem strengen Fokus Axiom (union approach) und dem schwachen Fokus Axiom (compensation approach) bei der Intensitätsanalyse explizit berücksichtigt. Zusätzlich zu verschiedenen Maßen der Armutslücke, einschließlich der multidimensionalen Wohlfahrtslücke, schlagen wir erstmals eine minimale multidimensionale Armutslücke (2DGAP) vor. Um den Capability Ansatz von Sen mit seiner sozialen Teilhabe zu berücksichtigen verwenden wir in der Zeitdimension die eigene persönliche Freizeit, deren Einschränkung im Besonderen eine soziale Teilhabe vermindert. Basierend auf eine CES Wohlfahrtsfunktion und einer multidimensionalen Armutsgrenze, die von der deutschen Bevölkerung mit dem Sozio-ökonomischen Panel geschätzt wird, wird die individuelle Armutsintensität der arbeitenden Bevölkerung für verschiedene Regime multipler Armut analysiert. Dafür verwenden wir die verfügbaren Zeittagebücher der deutschen Zeitbudgetstudien 1991/92 und 2001/02. Indem wir die arbeitende Bevölkerung betrachten ist diese Studie zugleich ein Beitrag zur Armutssituation der working poor. Alle empirischen Resultate, einschließlich der mikroökonometrischen Heckman Schätzung der minimalen IMD Armutslücke (2DGAP) und des IMD Armutsrisikos, verweisen auf die übergreifende Bedeutung der Zeitdimension mit ihrem sozialen Partizipationsaspekt innerhalb eines interdependenten multidimensionalen Zeit und Einkommensansatzes. Eine wichtige Dimension würde in der Armutsdiskussion und in der zielorientierten Armutspolitik außer Acht gelassen, wenn nicht Zeit zusätzlich zu Einkommen berücksichtigt wird.

Prior to July 2009, salaries of the members of the European Parliament were paid by their home country and there were substantial salary differences between parliamentarians representing different EU countries. Starting in July 2009, the salary of each member of the Parliament is pegged to 38.5% of a European Court judge's salary, paid by the EU. This created an exogenous change in salaries, the magnitude and direction of which varied substantially between parliamentarians. Parliamentarians receive per diem compensation for each plenary session they attend, but salaries constitute unearned income as they are independent of attendance to the Parliament. Using detailed information on each parliamentarian of the European Parliament between 2004 and 2011 we show that an increase in salaries reduces attendance to plenary sessions and an increase in per diem compensation increases it. We also show that corruption in home country has a negative effect on attendance for seasoned members of the Parliament.

It is recognized that employment policies must grant flexibility to the working schedules to allow parents to reconcile family and work. By exploiting the particularity of the East German labor market, I identify the causal effect of temporal work flexibility on parental time with children. The analysis unambiguously shows that it allows parents to spend about 30 percent more time with their children. The results can be generalized to Germany as a whole. It can be concluded that temporal work flexibility can be used as a device to mitigate the adverse effect of parental employment on the child's cognitive development.

How would people spend additional time if confronted by permanent declines in market work? We examine the impacts of cuts in legislated standard hours that raised employers' overtime costs in Japan around 1990 and Korea in the early 2000s. Using time-diaries from before and after these shocks, we show that these shocks were effective - per-capita hours of market work declined discretely. The economy-wide drops in market work were reallocated solely to leisure and personal maintenance. In the absence of changing household technology a permanent time gift leads to no increase in time spent in household production by the average individual.

This paper examines pecuniary aspects of work during unusual hours based on the German Time Use Data for 2001/02. The findings show positive wage premia of 9 - 10 percent for shift workers and men who work during unusual hours. There is some evidence of negative selection which suggests that men with lower potential daytime earnings have a higher propensity to choose these jobs because of the associated wage premium. The findings further show a U-shaped impact of temporal work disamenity across the wage distribution with higher wage premia paid to the extreme 5-percentiles.

The widening of the working hour distribution complicates the coordination of social leisure. This paper examines the short- and long-run impact of unusual working schedules on social life using German Time Use Data for 2001/02. I find evidence that younger workers with higher than median earnings seem to accept higher levels of solitary leisure as investment and because of the substantial wage premia. Younger workers tend to substitute sleep with free time. Older workers, in contrast, tend to sleep less which can be interpreted as elevated risk of mental and physical health.

Existing studies show that individuals who retire replace some private consumption by home production, but do not consider joint behaviour of couples. Here we analyze the causal effect of retirement of each partner on hours of home production of both partners in a couple. Our identification strategy exploits the earliest age retirement laws in France, enabling a fuzzy regression discontinuity approach. We find that own retirement significantly increases own hours of home production and the effect is larger for men than for women. Moreover, retirement of the female partner significantly reduces male hours of home production but not vice versa.

Using Mexican data on household time use and consumption, we find significant substitution between goods and time in home production and different elasticities of substitution for different household commodities. Adding these findings to the Ramsey optimal tax problem, we show it is optimal to impose higher taxes on market goods used in the production of commodities with a lower elasticity of substitution between goods and time. The reason is that government wants to minimize the distortionary substitution from market purchases toward untaxed time use in home production. This is an analog of the classical Corlett and Hague (1953-1954) result, differing in that we allow for the possibility of substitution between goods and time in the production of commodities. Leaving aside distributional considerations, we conclude that higher taxes should be imposed on market goods used in the production of `Eating' and lower taxes imposed on market goods used in the production of `Recreation'.

It is common sense that the self-employed - as professions and entrepreneurs - are rich by money and, because of their independence and time sovereignty, are rich by time, too. However, time stress and the variety of small businesses sometimes tell another story. This study tries to shed empirically based light on the issue and its dynamics by asking not only about income poverty but also about time poverty within the framework of a new interdependent multidimensional poverty approach. Database is the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) for the evaluation of the substitution/trade-off of genuine leisure time and income as well as the German Time Use Surveys (GTUS) 1991/92 and 2001/02 for the actual poverty analyses. Main result: The self-employed are more often affected by single income poverty, single time poverty as well as interdependent multidimensional time and income poverty than all other poor employees (working poorʺ) for both periods of observation. A remarkable percentage of not income poor but time poor employees in general, and the self-employed in particular, is not able to compensate their time deficit by income. Neglecting the self-employed in the poverty and well-being discussion would disregard an important group of the working poorʺ. Nach herkömmlicher Meinung sind Selbständige – als Freiberufler und Unternehmer (Gewerbetreibende) – nicht nur einkommensreich sondern auch zeitreich, da sie aufgrund ihrer Unabhängigkeit und Zeitsouveränität auch verhältnismäßig viel und disponible Zeit zur Verfügung haben. Unsere Studie untersucht diese These und damit erstmals die Wohlfahrtssituation von Selbständigen indem nicht nur nach der Einkommensarmut gefragt wird, sondern auch Zeitarmut im Rahmen eines neuen interdependenten multidimensionalen Armutskonzepts Berücksichtigung findet. Datenbasis ist einerseits das Sozio-ökonomische Panel für die bevölkerungsrepräsentative Bewertung der Substitutionalität/trade-off zwischen genuiner, persönlicher Freizeit und Einkommen als auch die beiden Zeitbudgeterhebungen 1992/92 und 2001/2 des Statistischen Bundesamtes. Zentrales Ergebnis: Selbständige sind hinsichtlich alleiniger Einkommensarmut, alleiniger Zeitarmut und interdependenter multidimensionaler Zeit- und Einkommensarmut in beiden Jahren weit stärker betroffen als alle anderen Gruppen der armen Erwerbstätigen, der „working poor“. Ein erheblicher Anteil von nicht-einkommensarmen aber zeitarmen Erwerbstätigen generell, und Selbständige im Besonderen, ist nicht in der Lage, ihr Zeitdefizit durch ihr Einkommen zu kompensieren. Würde man Selbständige bei der Armuts- und Wohlfahrtsdiskussion außen vor lassen, so würde eine bedeutende Gruppe der „working poor“ zu unrecht vernachlässigt.

Eltern investieren in ihre Kinder auf unterschiedliche Weise. Wir untersuchen wie das Ausmaß und die Zusammensetzung von Eltern-Kind Zeiten in unterschiedlichen Ländern mit differenten Wohlfahrtsregimes variiert: Finnland, Deutschland und die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. Komposition: Wir testen die Hypothese der Eltern-Kind Zeiten als eine Form von Humankapitalinvestitionen in Kinder mit einem ‚propensity score treatment effects’-Ansatz für die mögliche Endogenität der Zeitverwendung und Humankapitalinvestition. Resultat: Wohlfahrtsregime haben einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die von Eltern mit ihren Kindern verbrachte Zeit. Unsere Resultate unterstützen die Hypothese, dass Eltern-Kind Zeiten, die nicht als Kinderbetreuung zu charakterisieren sind, Humankapital anreichern. Die stärkste Unterstützung wurde für die Bereiche Freizeit und gemeinsam verbrachte Essenszeiten gefunden. Parents invest in their children’s human capital in several ways. We investigate the extent to which the levels and composition of parent-child time varies across countries with different welfare regimes: Finland, Germany and the United States. We test the hypothesis of parentchild time as a form of human capital investment in children using a propensity score treatment effects approach that accounts for the possible endogenous nature of time use and human capital investment. Result: There is considerable evidence of welfare regime effects on parent-child shared time. Our results provide mixed support for the hypothesis that non-care related parent-child time is human capital enriching. The strongest support is found in the case of leisure time and eating time.

This paper investigates the determinants of intra-household time allocation in post-war Rwanda. A decade after the 1994 genocide, Rwanda still bears the demographic impact of the war, in which at least 800,000 people died and the majority of casualties were adult males. The paper explores two unique features: exogenous variation in household types and large variation in regional cohort-specific sex ratios. Results indicate that, first, exposure to violence and male death can be a trigger of change in gender roles. Second, there is little flexibility to negotiate responsibilities within the household. Third, the local marriage market impacts the division of labor. Young, unmarried women engage more intensely in typical female activities when the shortage of men is severe. Conforming to the female gender role may be a strategy to improve their chances to marry.

The possibilities of time use research approaches for the analysis of the use of media is the focus of this study. After describing previous studies of media analyses time use research is characterised and the particular suitability of its central surveying instruments stylised survey information and time use diaries is investigated for media use analyses. The various new surveying instruments will be newly systematized according to survey principles and survey features/attributes and illustrated by numerous product examples. The critical appraisal yields recommendations for a method mix of time use diaries and new technology based surveying instruments. Die Möglichkeiten der Zeitverwendungsforschung für die Analyse der Mediennutzung ist das Thema dieser Studie. Nach der Beschreibung von Studien zur Medianalyse wird dieZeitverwendungsforschung charakterisiert und die besondere Eignung ihrer zentralen Erhebungsinstrumente – stilisierte Umfrageinformationen und Zeoittagebücher - für dieAnalyse der Mediennutzung vertieft untersucht. Die Vielzahl neuer Erhebungstechniken wird nach Erhebungsprinzipien und Erhebungseigenschaften neu systematisiert und mit zahlreichen Produktbeispielen illustriert. Die kritische Würdigung mündet schließlich in die Empfehlung eines Methodenmix aus Zeittagebüchern und neuen technologiebasierten Erhebungsinstrumenten.

Einkommen als traditionelles eindimensionales Wohlfahrts- und Armutsmaß wird in neueren Studien um ein multidimensionales Konzept erweitert. Obwohl dies sicherlich ein Fortschritt ist, fehlen zwei wichtige Aspekte: Zeit als eine wichtige Dimension und die Interdependenz der oft nur separat gezählten multiplen Armutsdimensionen. Unsere Studie will zu beiden Aspekten einen Beitrag liefern: erstens, wir betrachten Zeit - und Einkommen - beide als entscheidende und beschränkende Ressourcen aller täglichen Aktivitäten und betrachten deshalb Zeit und Einkommen als wichtige Dimensionen einer multiplen Armutsanalyse. Zweitens, die Interdependenz der multiplen Armutsdimensionen wird durch die Bevölkerung insgesamt bewertet, um zu einem Verständnis möglicher Substitutions- und ustauschbeziehungen zwischen den Dimensionen zu kommen. Hinsichtlich der Zeitdimension folgen wir Sen’s „Capability“-Ansatz mit seiner freien Wahl der Lebensbedingungen und sozialer Exklusion und argumentieren, dass eine Einschränkung der Zeit die soziale Partizipation inschränken kann. Im Besonderen ist eine Beschränkung der persönlichen, genuinen Freizeit (nicht die gesamte Freizeit) verknüpft mit eingeschränkter sozialer Partizipation. Die entscheidende Frage jedoch ist, wie die Substitution zwischen Einkommen und solcher persönlicher Freizeit erfasst werden kann. In unserer Analyse berücksichtigen wir die Bewertung der Bevölkerung mit Daten des Sozio-ökonomischen Panels und schätzen die Substitution mit einer CES-Nutzenfunktion einer generellen Zufriedenheit. Mit dieser Qantifizierung können wir dann singuläre Zeit- und Einkommensarmut sowie erweiterte multiple Armutssektoren für die als arm geltenden Erwerbstätigen („working poor“) herausarbeiten. Wir quantifizieren zudem weitere sozio-ökonomische Einflußfaktoren für jede der interdependenten multidimensionalen Armutssektoren mit einem multinomialen logit Ansatz basierend auf den Zeittagebuchdaten der deutschen Zeitbudgeterhebung 2001/02. Ein herausragendes Ergebnis für Deutschland: Substitution zwischen Zeit und Einkommen ist signifikant und wir finden einen hohen Prozentsatz von zeitarmen Menschen, die nicht in der Lage sind, ihr Zeitdefizit durch Einkommen zu substituieren. Dieser Personenkreis wird sowohl in der Armuts- und Wohlfahrtsdiskussion als auch in der Diskussion um Zeitstress und Zeitdruck bisher ignoriert. Income as the traditional one dimensional measure in well-being and poverty analyses is extended in recent studies by a multidimensional poverty concept. Though this is certainly a progress, however, two important aspects are missing: time as an important dimension and the interdependence of the often only separately counted multiple poverty dimensions. Our paper will contribute to both aspects: First, we consider time - and income - both as striking and restricting resources of everyday activities and hence account for time and income as important multiple poverty dimensions. Second, the interdependence of the poverty dimensions will be evaluated by the German population to allow an advanced approach to understand possible substitution effects and the respective trade offs between the dimensions. Referring to the time dimension, we follow Sen’s capability approach with its freedom of the living conditions’ choice and social exclusion and argue, that restricted time might exclude from social participation. In particular, restricted genuine, personal leisure time (not entire leisure time) in particular is associated with a restricted social participation. The crucial question then is how to measure the substitution between income and such genuine leisure time. In our analysis we consider the country population’s valuation with data from the German Socio-Economic Panel and estimate the substitution by a CES-utility function of general utility/satisfaction. Given this quantification we disentangle time, income and interdependent multidimensional poverty regimes characterising the working poor. In addition, we quantify further socio-economic influences for each interdependent multidimensional poverty regime by a multinomial logit based on time use diary data of the German Time Use Study 2001/02. One striking result for Germany: the substitution between time and income is significant and we find an important fraction of time poor who are unable to substitute their time deficit by income. These poor people are ignored within the poverty and well-being as well as the time crunch and time famine discussion so far.

In this paper we consider an empirical collective household model of time allocation for twoearnerhouseholds. The novelty of this paper is that we estimate a version of the collectivehousehold model, where the internally produced goods and the externally purchased goodsare assumed to be public. The empirical results suggest that: (1) Preferences of men andwomen differ; (2) Although there are significant individual variations, on average the utilityfunctions of men and women are equally weighted in the household utility function; (3)Differences in the ratio of the partners' hourly wages are explanatory for how individualutilities are weighted in the household utility function. (4) The female's preference forhousehold production is influenced by family size, but this does not hold for the male; (5)Both the male and the female have a backward-bending labor supply curve; (6) Labor-supplycurves are forward-bending with respect to the partner's wage rate; (7) Our model rejects theunitary Slutsky symmetry condition.This discussion paper has resulted in a publication in the href=http://www.springerlink.com/content/91m8442036767052/>'Review of Economics of the Household', 2008, 6(2), 169-91.

In this paper, we use five decades of time-use surveys to document trends in the allocation of time. We document that a dramatic increase in leisure time lies behind the relatively stable number of market hours worked (per working-age adult) between 1965 and 2003. Specifically, we document that leisure for men increased by 6?8 hours per week (driven by a decline in market work hours) and for women by 4?8 hours per week (driven by a decline in home production work hours). This increase in leisure corresponds to roughly an additional 5 to 10 weeks of vacation per year, assuming a 40-hour work week. We also find that leisure increased during the last 40 years for a number of sub-samples of the population, with less-educated adults experiencing the largest increases. Lastly, we document a growing inequality in leisure that is the mirror image of the growing inequality of wages and expenditures, making welfare calculation based solely on the latter series incomplete.

Diese Studie argumentiert, dass Feiertage die Koordination von Freizeit fördern nicht aber den jährlichen Umfang von Freizeit beschränken. Feiertage bringen deshalb einen Gewinn einerseits an Freizeitnutzen an Feiertagen selbst und - indem sie leichter soziale Kontakte ermöglichenandererseits an Freizeitnutzen an normalen Wochentagen und Wochenenden. Die Studie nutzt die Variation (13 bis 17) an Feiertagen in den verschiedenen Bundesländern auf der Basis der deutschen Zeitbudgetstudie 2001-02 um zu zeigen, dass Feiertage einen Gewinn bezüglich des sozialen Lebens an normalen Wochentagen und Wochenenden erbringen. Da dieser Gewinn zusätzlich zum Nutzen aus Feiertagen ist, spricht dies für vermehrte öffentliche Feiertage. This paper argues that public holidays facilitate the co-ordination of leisure time but do not constrain the annual amount of leisure. Public holidays therefore have benefits both in the utility of leisure on holidays and (by enabling people to maintain social contacts more easily) in increasing the utility of leisure on normal weekdays and weekends. The paper uses the variation (13 to 17) in public holidays across German Länder and the German Time Use Survey of 2001-02 to show that public holidays have beneficial impacts on social life on normal weekdays and weekends. Since these benefits are additional to the other benefits of holidays, it suggests that there is a case to be made for more public holidays.

This paper investigates time allocation decisions in new ventures of female and male entrepreneurs using a new model that distinguishes between effects of preferences (what they like) and productivity (what they are good at) on the number of working hours. Using data of 1203 entrepreneurs we find that the preference for work time in new ventures is related to the motivation for starting up a business, the propensity to take risk and the availability of other income. Productivity of work time is explained by human, financial and social capital and outsourcing. This study also evaluates actual profit effects one year after start-up. With respect to gender we find that – on average – women invest less time in the business than men. This can be attributed to a lower productivity per hour worked, due to lower endowments of human, social and financial capital.

This paper studies the optimal commodity taxation problem when time taken in consumption is a perfect substitute for either labor or leisure. It shows that while labor substitutability affects the optimal tax structure, leisure substitutability leaves the classical optimal tax results intact. In the Ramsey tax framework with linear income taxes, whether the consumers have the same or different earning abilities, labor substitutes tend to be taxed at a higher rate than leisure substitutes with the tax differential being increasing in consumption time. This is not necessarily the case when one allows for nonlinear income taxation.

Valid and reliable individual time use data in connection with an appriate set of socio-economic background variables are essential elements of an empirical foundation and evaluation of existing time use theories and for the search of new empirical-based hypotheses about individual behavior. Within the Yale project of Assessing American Heritage Time Use Studies (1965, 1975, 19895, 1992-94 and 1998/99), supported by the Glaser Foundation, and working with these time use studies, it is necessary to be sure about comparable representative data. As it will become evident, there is a serious bias in all of these files concerning demographic characteristics, characteristics which are important for substantive time use research analyses. Our study and new calibration solution will circumvent these biases by delivering a comprehensive demographic adjustment for all incorporated U.S. time use surveys, which is theoretically funded (here by information theory and the minimum information loss principle with its ADJUST program package), is consistent by a simultaneous weighting including hierarchical data, considers substantial requirements for time use research analyses and is similar and thus comparable in the demographic adjustment characteristics for all U.S. time use files to support substantial analyses and allows to disentangle demographic vs. time use behavioral changes and developments. Valide und zuverlässige individulle Zeitverwendungsdaten zusammen mit geeigneten sozio-ökonomischen Hintergrundvariablen sind essentiell für eine empirische Fundierung und Evaluierung bestehender Zeitverwendungstheorien and für die Suche nach neuen empirisch fundierten Hypothesen über individuelles Handeln. Innerhalb des Yale Projektes 'Assessing American Heritage Time Use Studies' (1965, 1975, 19895, 1992-94 and 1998/99), das von der Glaser Foundation unterstützt wird, und der Arbeit mit diesen Zeitbudgetdaten ist es notwendig, sich auf die Repräsentativität mit vergleichbarer demographischer Struktur verlassen zu können. Wie ersichtlich wird, gibt es deutliche Abweichungen bei der Repräsentativität demographiacher Charakteristika in allen US Zeitverwendungsstudien, und zwar hinsichtlich demographischer Charakteristika, die bedeutend für die inhaltliche Analyse der Zeitverwendung sind.Unsere Studie und die neue Hochrechnungslösung überwindet diese Verzerrungen mit einer demographischen Hochrechnung, die vergleichbar für alle US Files ist, theoretisch fundiert ist (hier durch die Informationstheorie und dem Minimum Information Loss Prinzip mit dem ADJUST Programmpaket), konsistent durch eine simultane Gewichtung ist, die hierarchische Daten beinhaltet, substantielle Anforderungen der Zeitverwendungsforschung unterstützt und es erlaubt, demographische Veränderungen von Verhaltensänderungen zu trennen.

Traditionelle Wohlfahrtsanalysen, die sich alleine auf monetäre Einkommensangaben stützen, bedürfen der Erweiterung um die zeitliche Dimension, zumal auch in den vergangenen Jahren der Vollzeitarbeitstag anderen, flexibleren Arbeitszeitformen gewichen ist. Mit unserem Fokus auf die Frage, wer wann am Tage arbeitet und welche Konsequenzen auf die Einkommenssituation damit verbunden sind, gehen wir über traditionelle Arbeitsmarktanalysen hinaus, die Arbeitszeit allein in aggregierte Größen wie Voll- oder Teilzeitbeschäftigung oder Wochenendarbeit unterteilt haben.Während der erste Teil der Studie die Verteilung von Arbeitszeitarrangements - nach zeitlicher Lage und ihrer Fragmentierung - und das daraus resultierende Einkommen beschreibt und sich dabei auf über 35 000 Zeittagebuchbeobachtungen der neuesten Zeitbudgeterhebung 2001/02 stützt, quantifiziert der zweite Teil den Einfluss von Determinanten von arrangementspezifischen Einkommensfunktionen. Theoretisch steht dabei die Humankapitaltheorie im markt- und nicht-marktmäßigen Zusammenhang Pate, die erweitert wird um Strukturmerkmale der Zeitverwendung, den Arbeitsbedingungen des Partners, Charakteristika des sozialen Netzwerkes, sowie haushaltsspezifische und regionale Merkmale. Der methodische Ansatz ist eine treatment effects-Schätzung der Einkommensfunktion nach einer individuellen, endogenen Selektionsentscheidung für eine der Arbeitszeitkategorien. Traditional welfare analyses based on money income needs to be broadened by its time dimension. In the course of time the traditional full-time work is diminishing and new labour arrangements are discussed (keyword: flexible labour markets). Our study is contributing to economic well-being by adding insights into particular work effort characteristics and its resulting income distribution. With our focus on who is working when within a day with which earnings consequences we go beyond traditional labour market analyses with its working time division into aggregated full and part time work, working hours spread across a week and weekend etc. Whereas the first part of our study is describing the distribution of timing and fragmentation of daily work time and its resulting income based on more than 35.000 diaries of the recent German Time Budget Survey 2001/2002, the second part of our study quantifies determinants of arrangement specific earnings functions detecting significant explanatory pattern of what is behind. The economic theory behind is a human capital approach in a market and non-market context, extended by non-market time use, the partner's working condition, social networking as well as household and regional characteristics. The econometrics use a treatment effects type interdependent estimation of endogenous participation (selection) in a daily working hour pattern (self-selection) and pattern specific earnings function explanation.

Der Diskussion um neue Arbeitszeitarrangements und flexible Arbeitszeiten fehlt bislang die empirische Grundlage auf der Basis von personenbezogenen Mikrodaten. Gegenstand unserer Studie Arbeit ist es, Abweichungen vom Normalarbeitstag in zwei Dimensionen zu untersuchen: zum einen in der zeitlichen Lage, zum anderen in der Frage, ob sich ein Arbeitstag mehrere, durch längere Pausen unterbrochene Perioden der Arbeit unterteilt. Dazu wird neben deskriptiven Ergebnissen der sozio-ökonomischen Charakteristika einzelner Arbeitszeitmuster auch ein Multinomiales Logit-Modell zur Erklärung der Wahl eines Arbeitszeitarrangements herangezogen.Unter Verwendung der beiden Zeitbudgeterhebungen des Statistischen Bundesamtes aus den Jahren 1991/92 und 2001/02 wird die Entwicklung von Mustern der Erwerbsarbeitszeit dargestellt. Dabei stellt sich heraus, dass für den Zeitraum zwischen den Untersuchungen der Normalarbeitstag einen erheblichen Rückgang im Anteil an den beobachteten Arbeitstagen aufweist.Gleichzeitig ändern sich die sozio-ökonomischen Strukturmerkmale der Arrangements und die Gründe für die Wahl eines Typs von Arbeitszeit. Weniger als noch zehn Jahre zuvor können z.B. pekuniäre Anreize wie der Lohn oder das restliche Haushaltseinkommen die Entscheidung für ein Arrangement erklären. Up to now the discussion about new working time arrangements and flexible working times has lacked an empirical foundation based on personal micro data. It is the task of this study to analyze deviations from what we call a normal work day in two dimensions: first, in respect of the timing of work time, second, the issue of whether a work day is interrupted into several periods of work by longer breaks. Beyond a mere descriptive analysis of socio-economic characteristics for the respective working time arrangements we employed a multinomial logit model to explain the individual choice of a working time pattern. Using the two time budget studies conducted by the German Federal Statistical Office in 1991/92 and 2001/02 we present the development of working time arrangements. It turns out that for the time interval between the two samples the share of normal work days in total work days has declined considerably. At the same time the socio-economic structure of the working time arrangements and the reasons for choosing a special type of working time has changed as well. While e.g. in 1991/92 pecuniary (dis-)incentives as wage or further household income played a prominent role in the decision for a working time pattern, this role has declined during the ten year period.

Traditional welfare analyses based on money income needs to be broadened by its time dimension. In the course of time the traditional full-time work is diminishing and new labour arrangements are discussed (keyword: flexible labour markets). Our study is contributing to economic well-being by adding insights into particular work effort characteristics - the daily timing of work and its fragmentation - and its resulting income distribution. With our focus on - who is working when within a day with which earnings consequences - we go beyond traditional labour market analyses with its working time division into aggregated full and part time work, working hours spread across a week and weekend, life time working etc. Whereas the first part of our study is describing the distribution of timing and fragmentation of daily work time and its resulting income based on more than 35.000 diaries of the recent German Time Budget Survey 2001/2002, the second part of our study quantifies determinants of arrangement specific earnings functions detecting significant explanatory pattern of what is behind. The economic theory behind is a human capital approach in a market and non-market context, extended by non-market time use, the partner's working condition, social networking as well as household and regional characteristics. The econometrics use a treatment effects type interdependent estimation of endogenous participation (selection) in a daily working hour pattern (self-selection)and pattern specific earnings function explanation. The overall result: Individual earnings in Germany are dependent on and significant different with regard to the daily working hour arrangement capturing timing and fragmentation of work time. Market and non-market factors are important and significant in explaining earnings. Traditionelle Wohlfahrtsanalysen auf der Basis monetärer Größen erfordern eine Erweiterung um ihre Zeitdimension. Im Laufe der Zeit verringerte sich die Bedeutung von Vollzeitarbeit zugunsten neuer Arbeitsarrangements (Schlagwort: flexible Arbeitsmärkte). Unsere Studie trägt zur ökonomischen Wohlfahrt bei durch die Analyse des spezifischen Arbeitsaufwandes - die tägliche Lage der Arbeitszeit und ihrer Fragmentierung - und seiner resultierenden Einkommensverteilung. Mit unserem Fokus auf Wer arbeitet wann am Tag und mit welchen Einkommenskonsequenzen gehen wir über traditionelle Arbeitsmarktanalysen hinaus, die sich auf aggregierte Voll-und Teilzeitarbeit, wöchentliche Arbeitszeit, Arbeit am Wochenende, Lebensarbeitszeit etc. beschränkt.Während der erste Teil unserer Studie die Verteilung der zeitlichen Lage und Fragmentierung der täglichen Arbeitszeit und der resultierenden Einkommen auf der Basis von mehr als 35.000 Zeittagebüchern der aktuellen deutschen Zeitbudgeterhebung 2001/02 beschreibt, quantifiziert der zweite Teil Determinanten arrangementspezifischer Einkommensfunktionen, um signifikante Erklärungsmuster zu finden. Die zugrunde liegende Theorie ist der Humankapitalansatz in einem markt- und nichtmarktmäßigen Kontext, erweitert um nichtmarktmäßige Zeitallokation, die Arbeitsbedingungen des Partners, soziale Netzwerke als auch Haushalts- und regionale Charakteristika. Der ökonometrische Ansatz ist ein treatment effects-Ansatz mit interdependenter Schätzung der endogenen Partizipation (Selektion) hinsichtlich des täglichen Arbeitszeitmusters (self-selection) und musterspezifischer Erklärung der Einkommen.Herausragendes Ergebnis: Die individuellen Einkommen in Deutschland sind abhängig und signifikant unterschiedlich hinsichtlich der täglichen Arbeitszeitarrangements mit der zeitlichen Lage und Fragmentierung der Arbeitszeit. Markt und nichtmarktmäßige Faktoren sind dabei wichtig und signifikant in der Erklärung der Einkommen.

Individuals make systematic mistakes in their decisions, because they mispredict utility from choice options. When deciding, extrinsic attributes of choice options are more salient than intrinsic attributes. Adaptation is neglected, recollection of feelings is distorted, decisions are rationalized and wrong intuitive theories of happiness are applied. People overestimate extrinsic attributes and therefore put too much emphasis on acquiring income and gaining status. In contrast, they underestimate intrinsic attributes and devote too little time to their family, friends or hobbies, which lowers their utility level. The theoretical analysis is consistent with an econometric study on commuting decisions using reported subjective well-being data.

Guided by a simple theory of task assignment and time allocation, we investigate the long run response to national differences in tax rates on labor income, payrolls and consumption. The theory implies that higher tax rates reduce work time in the market sector, increase the size of the shadow economy, alter the industry mix of market activity, and twist labor demand in a way that amplifies negative effects on market work and concentrates effects on the less skilled. We also describe conditions whereby cross-country OLS regressions yield unbiased estimates of the total effect of taxes, inclusive of indirect effects that work through government spending responses to tax revenues. Regressions on rich-country samples in the mid 1990s indicate that a unit standard deviation tax rate difference of 12.8 percentage points leads to 122 fewer market work hours per adult per year, a drop of 4.9 percentage points in the employment-population ratio, and a rise in the shadow economy equal to 3.8 percent of GDP. It also leads to 10 to 30 percent lower employment and value added shares in (a) retail trade and repairs, (b) eating, drinking and lodging, and (c) a broader industry group that includes wholesale and motor trade.

Mit der zeitlichen Flexibilisierung der Arbeitsmärkte und dem damit verbundenen Rückzug des Normalarbeitstages treten neue Muster von Arbeitszeit auf. Auf Basis der deutschen Zeitbudgeterhebung 1991/92 sollen Arbeitszeiten von Selbständigen und abhängig Beschäftigten untersucht werden. Zunächst systematisiert der vorliegende Beitrag verschiedene Verläufe des Arbeitstages. Dabei werden bilden sich vier Kategorien von Arbeitszeitmustern heraus. Danach stellt sich die Frage, ob sich zwischen Selbständigen und abhängig Beschäftigten Unterschiede in der Gestaltung des Arbeitstages feststellen lassen. Nach einer deskriptiven Analyse der Kategorien, wird in einem Multinomialen Logit Modell neben dem Berufsstatus der Einfluss sozio-ökonomischer Hintergrundvariablen auf die Entscheidung für eine der Kategorien von Arbeitszeit geschätzt. Wir kontrollieren dabei u. a. für Variablen, die der Humankapitaltheorie, den new home economics und der Zeitverwendungsforschung entliehen sind. Es zeigt sich, dass insbesondere Selbständige ohne Angestellte zu einem atypischen Verhalten am neigen, das durch Arbeitszeiten am frühen Morgen und späten Abend sowie Unterbrechungen kennzeichnet. In recent years new patterns of working time have appeared along with an increased flexibility concerning timing of work and the decay of the regular working day. We analyze the timing of working time for both self-employed and employees based on the German time budget study 1991/92. In the first step we systematise different courses of the working day. Thereby, four categories of working time patterns emerged. After that the question is raised if differences between self-employed and employees can be found concerning their daily working times. After a descriptive analysis of the categories a multinomial logit model is employed in order to find out if the occupational background of a person can be used to explain the decision which working time pattern to choose. We control for variables stemming from human capital theory led explanations from new home economics and from time use research. It can be shown that particularly self-employed without any employee tend to work at non-core times such as early in the morning and/or late in the evening or in multiple episodes with at least one longer interruption.

The labour market providing individual resources and economic well-being is still a topic in the economic and social policy discussion. In the course of time the traditional full-time work is diminishing, new labour arrangements are discussed (keyword: flexible labour markets). This study will contribute to the discussion of working hour arrangements by quantifying patterns of explanation of who is working when within a workday. In particular we want to disentangle certain working hour patterns and the final hours of work according to those different patterns allowing for market and non-market influences. The daily working hour patterns are analysed by two dimensions: the fragmentation of a working day (by the number of working episodes) and the timing of work time by location of those episodes within the day's period. Deducting such patterns allows not only to describe possible workday interruptions and workday behaviour in general, but to give hints for which groups of the society non-traditional working time is important. Once quantified, labour market policy has a sound base for a targeted policy. Our model is based on a microeconomic labour supply approach, however extended by two dimensions: first, by daily working time arrangements with focus on core and non-core working time crossed by number of episodes and, second, by labour supply factors in a market and non-market context. Our microeconometric estimates use a multinomial logit (MNL) model to explain the working hour arrangement probability and a MNL selectivity bias corrected hours estimation for arrangement specific working hours with correct asymptotic covariances. Our study is the first German study of this kind which could analyse the actual available German Time Use Survey 1991/92 from the Federal Statistical Office with ca. 32.000 time diaries. Der Arbeitsmarkt als Quelle wirtschaftlichen Wohlstands steht weiterhin in der öffentlichen Debatte zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialpolitik. In jüngster Zeit, in der der traditionelle Vollzeitarbeitsplatz an Bedeutung verliert, werden insbesondere neue Formen der Arbeitszeitgestaltung diskutiert (Stichwort: flexible Arbeitsmärkte).Die vorliegende Arbeit trägt zur Diskussion solcher Arbeitszeitarrangements bei, indem Modelle quantifiziert werden, die die Frage klären: Wer arbeitet zu welcher Tageszeit? Insbesondere wollen wir marktmäßige und nicht-marktmäßige Einflüsse auf die Wahl bestimmter Muster von Arbeitszeit und der Länge der täglichen Arbeitszeit bestimmen. Die Arbeitszeitmuster untersuchen wir hinsichtlich zweier Dimensionen: der Zerstückelung des Arbeitstages in mehrere Episoden von Arbeit und der zeitlichen Lage dieser Episoden. Mit der Identifizierung der Arbeitszeitmuster lässt sich auch herausfinden, für welche sozialen Gruppen nicht tradierte Arbeitszeiten von Bedeutung sind. Diese quantitativen Auswertungen bieten der Arbeitsmarktpolitik eine Grundlage für eine zielgerichtete Politik.Unser Modell basiert auf einem mikroökonomischen Arbeitsangebotsansatz erweitert um zwei Dimensionen:: einerseits um die Muster täglicher Arbeitszeit, andererseits um Arbeitsangebotsfaktoren im Kontext marktmäßiger und nicht-marktmäßiger Aktivitäten. In unseren mikroökonometrischen Schätzungen verwenden wir ein multinomiales Logit (MNL) zur Erklärung der Wahrscheinlichkeit, ein bestimmtes Arbeitszeitmuster zu wählen, und eine MNL-selektionskorrigierte Schätzung der Arbeitszeit mit der dazugehörigen asymptotischen Kovarianzmatrix. Unsere Studie ist die erste dieser Art, die die aktuell zugänglichen deutschen Zeitverwendungserhebung 1991/92 des Statistischen Bundesamtes mit ihren 32000 Zeittagebüchern auswertet.

Despite the attractiveness of experiments from the perspective of program evaluation, there have been very few program experiments in the area of family planning. This paper evaluates an ongoing family planning program experiment in rural Bangladesh. The paper estimates the effect of mothers' program exposure on fertility and children's time allocation. The results show that while the program was effective in reducing fertility, it had no significant impact on children's school enrollment. However, the program appears to have significantly raised boys' participation in the labor force.

This paper examines the synchronous leisure of spouses and the extent to which spouses spend time together. The time budget data set used in this paper allows for a distinction between simultaneous time-use of spouses and the actual time that spouses meet. A comparison between couples and matched singles suggests that only about 12 percent (45 minutes per day) of the synchronous leisure is caused by active synchronization. Spouses' decisions about market work and leisure timing are very interdependent during most hours of the day. The results also suggest that, conditional on synchronous leisure, parents with high incomes spend more time together than others, while more educated people allocating less time to their spouses.

Process benefit scores indicates that time with own children is preferred before all other activities, closely followed by market work. The trade-off between parents’ time with their own kids and market work, and its dependence on out-of-home day-care is analyzed in a simultaneous equation framework. Our empirical results suggest that parents’ decisions about market work and time with children are strongly interdependent. Economic incentives work primarily through decisions about market work, while the direct effects on time with kids are weak. The results suggest that a change in the mother’s work hours influences less the parents’ time with their children than a change in the father’s work hours does. This would imply that a policy working to increase the time with own children should primarily influence the father’s work hours. We also find that parents prefer joint activities with children, and that out-of-home child-care is not chosen as a substitute for own time with kids.

The dynamics of multiple time use in paid work and in household activities with housework, child rearing and DIY of married women are analyzed with a two step procedure: the estimation of the participation decision in intertemporal labor force participation strategies (entering, leaving the labor market, permanently employed and not employed) by a multinomial logit approach is followed by a selectivity bias corrected simultaneous hours equations systems (C3SLS) estimation of the determinants of hours supplied in multiple time use activities. Microdata base is the German Socio-Economic Panel with four waves (1984-1987), where information of the household - including the husband's employment situation - is merged with regional economic and local labour demand indicators. Die Dynamik multipler Zeitverwendung in Beruf und Haushalt mit Hausarbeit, Kindererziehung und Do-it-yourself-Aktivitäten wird in einer zweistufigen Prozedur analysiert: Der Schätzung der Partizipationsentscheidung in intertemporalen Erwerbsstrategien (Ein- und Austritt aus und in den Arbeitsmarkt, längerfristige Erwerbs- und Nichterwerbstätigkeit) durch einen multinomialen Logit-Ansatz folgt eine selektivitätskorrigierte simultane Schätzung multipler Zeitverwendung (C3SLS). Mikrodatenbasis ist das Sozio-Ökonomische Panel mit vier Wellen (1984-1987), wobei Haushaltsinformationen - inclusive der Beschäftigungssituation des Ehemannes - verknüpft wurden mit regionalen Indikatoren zur ökonomischen Situation und der lokalen Arbeitsnachfrage.