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Homeschooling is on the rise in many Western countries, reflecting families' growing preference for teaching their children at home, in a family environment. This increasing trend has a social derivative, as learning at home may develop alternative competencies. The objective of this research is to examine the effectiveness of homeschooling by analyzing the levels of creative thinking and social competencies among homeschoolers and by comparing these abilities to those of traditional learners. Participants included 549 schoolchildren between the ages of 8 and 12 (280 homeschoolers and 269 public school students). The participants were asked to fill in two questionnaires: (1) the Creative Thinking Drawing Production (TCT-DP) questionnaire to evaluate their creative thinking, and (2) the Social Competencies Rating System (SSRS) questionnaire to evaluate their social competences. The findings of the multiple regression analyses indicate that homeschoolers exhibit higher level of creative thinking and higher social competencies than traditional learners. Policy implications highlight the need to develop creative thinking and social competencies among traditional learners.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, it examines the extent of equity in the academic achievement distribution by analyzing Israeli students' high school matriculation scores, controlling for background characteristics (e.g. parental education) and for previous achievement. Second, it analyzes the trends in equity during the examined period from 2001 to 2011. Design/methodology/approach: Nationwide extensive data sets, at the student level, of 11 cohorts are analyzed using logistic regression models. Findings: Major findings reveal that the odds ratios (ORs) are in favor of students from families with a high level of parental education (an increment of one year of parental education increases the odds of student's success by 3 percent). In addition, the ORs are less favorable for Arab students (30 percent lower). Furthermore, a high previous achievement level increases the odds of success (an increment of 1 percent in achievement increases the odds by 6 percent). In addition, the extent of inequity remains stable throughout the examined period. Originality/value: Israel serves as an interesting case study, as its student achievement distribution in international examinations is characterized by the highest gap compared with other OECD countries, although its policy aspires to achieve equity. This puzzle, is the motivation for this study. Moreover, insights from this research might assist policy makers to promote equitable education.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships between education and competencies from a comparative view, while controlling for background characteristics (e.g. parental education), home features (e.g. income) and country fixed effect. Design/methodology/approach: This paper utilises an international data sets of 12 Belt and Road (B&R) countries participating in the PIAAC survey. Data are examined using regression models with "REPSET" Stata code. The focus on B&R countries is interesting as this recent economic and strategic development alliance might transform the contemporary global balance of power. Therefore, examining its educational development is important. Findings: Findings reveal the higher the level of education, the higher the competency level in numeracy and literacy. Age was found to be negatively related to competencies, and gender was found to be dually significant. Among the examined B&R countries, Slovenia, Russia and Israel contribute the most to the numeracy, literacy and problem solving competencies (respectively) compared with other countries. The findings might contribute to the design of education for development policies aimed at increasing the level of state competitiveness while accounting for social cohesiveness. Originality/value: The paper provides a comparative study into educational development of the B&R alliance, and therefore offers an insight of the developmental cooperation as it emerges. The focus on the B&R initiative is important as it is a strategic development alliance which might transform the contemporary global balance of power. Therefore, the examination of the above-mentioned relationships with the focus on B&R countries might advance the strategic design of this cooperation.

This research examines Financial Literacy (FL) among the ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Jewish population in Israel, a group characterized by a high rate of poverty compared to others (Endeweld, Barkali, Gottlieb, & Heller, 2016b). FL has the potential to reduce the rate of poverty of the ultra-Orthodox population in Israel. It analyses the relationships among income, education and FL, while controlling for background variables (e.g., internet connection and parental education). To this end, 187 Haredi households in Israel were surveyed. The questionnaires were analyzed using six multiple linear regression models and one logistic regression model. Major findings point to a positive relationship between income and FL, with higher income related to high FL. Moreover, this positive relationship between income and FL is moderated by the acquisition of higher education. In other words, individuals with low income who have acquired higher education will have higher FL compared to their counterparts with a lower level of education. Our findings imply that there is a need to develop a policy of inclusion of ultra-Orthodox students at higher education institutions. A higher level of education increases the level of FL, which in turn might also reduce the poverty rate.

The right to education depends upon a willingness to finance education fairly. Addressing the difference in educational achievement between learners of different backgrounds is a key aspect of fairness. Framed by contemporary neoliberal policies around marketisation and competitiveness, this paper examines fairness in the education finance policy (EFP) of three jurisdictions in England, Israel and Oklahoma. Using a comparative analysis of school funding formulae and an international survey on the perceptions of local policy actors, the "de jure" and the "de facto" EFPs are examined. Our findings reveal "de jure" policies attempting to address fairness through integrating different student background characteristics. However, variability is evident in the extent to which the "de facto" policies align with an aspiration for fairness. This is linked to the marketisation of education in each jurisdiction. We conclude that weightings of students' background characteristics can only be one feature in policy interventions orientated towards bringing about social equity.

Purpose: Resource allocation is a key policy instrument that affects the educational achievement distribution (EAD). The literature on methods of allocation is focused mainly on equity issues. The purpose of this paper is to develop a composite funding formula, which adds to the equity-based element (i.e. a needs-based element compensating for students' low starting points), an element of rewarding improvement in schools' educational achievement distribution (IEAD) (i.e. raising the overall level of achievement and narrowing the achievement gap). Design/methodology/approach: This formula is developed using advanced regression models as well as integrating further policy considerations. The data sets are comprised of nation-wide student-level information on longitudinal students' achievements (8th graders of 2006, and four years later 12th graders 2010), as well as student background characteristics, and teacher profiles and school features. The Israel data serve as an interesting case study for other countries which are similarly characterized by its students' diversity, and by its aspiration to improve its EAD and to narrow the achievement gap. Findings: Results reveal that the variance among students' performance is mostly explained by their past performance. In addition, other background characteristics also contribute to the explained variation in students' performance; however, a lower contribution was found, compared with that of the previous performance. Specifically, schools' value added contributes 25 percent to the overall 50 percent of explained variance. In other words, allocating resources to schools solely with accordance to equity issues might have an adverse effect on improvement. Yet, designing a composite mechanism that integrates both equity and improvement issues might be more effective. Practical implications: Policy makers in other countries that strive to achieve improvement as well as equity in education might consider adjusting the technique developed in this work. The proposed technique might be adjusted based on each country's nation-wide student-level data. The design of a research-based funding formula aimed at improvement in education as well as considering equity issues might be more effective, equitable, and efficient. Originality/value: The main contribution of this work is the conceptual development of IEAD, as well as its measured weight in the funding formula. This work suggests an innovative method of allocation that rewards schools by allocating larger resources based on the improvement gained in the process of learning (not just on the inputs or outputs/outcomes). This research value lays in its design of a composite funding formula that takes into account, in addition to the equity component, an innovative improvement-based component. In addition to that, the value of this research lays on its policy implications. This research suggests and develops a technique for developing a research-based funding formula that might be useful for other countries aspire to improve their education.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships between the distribution of educational funds allocated by the central government and the educational achievement distribution (EAD) at the primary school level. To this end, the extent of equity in education funding, and the extent of the equality of educational opportunity (EEO) in the EAD is analyzed. Finally, the relationships between equitable funding and EEO are investigated. Regression models (for the overall population, the Hebrew-speaking schools, and the Arabic-speaking schools) were used to analyze equity. The Ministry-of-Education data sets consist of national examination scores and funds allocated by the central government, the background characteristics of fifth grade students in Israel, were matched at the school level. Findings reveal resources are allocated more equitably to the Hebrew-speaking schools compared with Arabic-speaking schools. Additionally, a low extent of EEO in the EAD of the entire student population was revealed, for all examined subjects, with the exception of literacy. Finally, a positive relationship was found between equitable funding and EEO, while controlling for students' demographics and background characteristics.

More than two decades ago, the world made a promise to children everywhere by signing the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which includes education as a basic human right, which is universal and inalienable--everyone, regardless of religion, ethnicity or economic status, is entitled to it (UNICEF, 2008). Yet this global promise was challenged by the hidden tradeoff between children's right to education in terms of development, and the rights of minorities to preserve their culture via education. The tradeoff is even more dominant in multicultural countries competing in global economy. This article aims to explore the tradeoff between competitiveness and multiculturalism, using the right to education of the Israeli ultra-Orthodox students as an interesting case study. On the one hand, ultra-Orthodox students indeed have a right to education, moreover, the state is obligated to its provision and finance; yet on the other hand, the quality of the education in ultra-Orthodox schools remains vague. Thus, multiculturalism might be achieved as these children indeed are enrolled in ultra-Orthodox schools financed by the state; yet, competitiveness might be hindered, as the quality of their education is questionable. The research question is to what extent, if at all, is the equality of educational opportunity achieved in a multicultural nation-state. The method of analysis is two way ANOVA. The results reveal that the extent of equality of educational opportunity (EEO) is low for students enrolled in ultra-Orthodox schools compared to their counterparts. Furthermore, the extent of equality of educational opportunity is declining along the schooling level (from grade 2 to grade 5). In light of the incremental trend of students enrolled in ultra-Orthodox schools, the low extent of EEO might hinder the acceleration of state competitiveness. This article has implications for other countries with diverse populations that strive to achieve both the sustainability of multiculturalism and in the same time, the acceleration of state competitiveness.

Higher education contributes to state competitiveness via human capital development that provides future returns to the economy through increases in labour productivity. Additionally, higher education is an infrastructure for future state-level social cohesiveness. Those countries where the education system produces more equitable outcomes are more likely to promote future social cohesiveness. The paper argues that Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), as a new factor in the global higher education landscape, change the dynamics of state competitiveness and cohesiveness. The economic discussion addresses MOOCs as a Pareto improvement. As such, it addresses the competitive ability of the state through its production, since the possibility frontier is broader when compared to the pre-MOOCs era. However, this discussion fails to addresses the issue of maintaining state social cohesiveness. This paper develops a theoretical model that addresses these changes, taking into account the short run and long run dynamics, and concludes with policy recommendations for countries aiming to sustain their competitiveness while maintaining social cohesiveness.

Child poverty is a growing problem that adversely affects both future society and the poor children themselves. This paper's purpose is to investigate the intergenerational links between education and poverty. Israel serves as an interesting case study because it has exhibited an incremental trend in child poverty between 1980 and 2010 (from 5% to 35%). Regression analyses were conducted to measure the effect of the current generation's features (i.e., education, income, and household investment in education) and of the state's school finance policy on the next generation's cognitive development. These analyses reveal that at the upper secondary school level, the education level, the income level, and the extent of household investment in education of the current generation of students in Hebrew-speaking schools have a high and positive effect on the next generation's cognitive development in terms of high school matriculation eligibility. At the lower secondary level, school finance policy and the education level of the current generation both have a high positive effect on the next generation's cognitive development in terms of academic achievement measured by math scores. In addition, the findings for the Arabic-speaking schools reveal that, at the upper secondary level, the income of the current generation has a high positive effect on the next generation's cognitive development; at the lower secondary school level, the extent of household investment in education of the current generation has a high and positive effect on the next generation's cognitive development. Policy implications are discussed, and a school finance policy reform is suggested as a strategy of breaking through the intergenerational cycle of poverty.

This article focuses on the financial education of children. Education is a key factor in achieving economic development and socio-economic equality. Financial education can provide children with some of the additional knowledge and skills required to this end. Second and third grade Israeli students (n = 121), enrolled in three differently situated schools (in terms of religiosity level and socio-economic status [SES]), filled in a multiple-choice questionnaire constructed especially for this study, designed as a pre-test before starting a course on financial education. The analysis included an ANOVA test and t-tests. Results revealed an overall low level of financial literacy amongst Israeli children. Religious students displayed higher financial literacy in comparison to secular students, and students of high SES showed a higher level of financial literacy compared with low SES students. Mistaken preconceptions were also revealed. The insights gained will contribute towards developing more effective financial education for children, thereby improving their chances of future success.

Entitlement to education is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights acknowledges education as a fundamental right stating that everyone has the right to education. The question of financing this right mainly focuses on the "governmental" allocation of resources to the educational system, as public schools are in the main financed by the government. However, in recent years, there is an incremental trend of supplements to government resources allocated to schools by non-governmental actors. This paper aims to investigate the question of entitlement focusing on the "local authorities'" allocation to schools, using Israel as a case study. The "fairness" analysis conducted using various statistical measurements, developed in the school finance policy literature, reveals that the level of equity at both the input and output sides of the educational process is rather low. Additionally, comparing fairness analysis of two years data (that of 2006 and 2011) before and after the Israeli parliament (the Knesset) elections and the school finance policy reform (both on 2009), reveal that the trend is for equity to be on the decline. Aiming at a potentially more successful implementation of fairness, an alternative policy is discussed, taking into account both improvement and compensation elements. The implications concern all other countries with diverse populations who strive for fairness and aim at improving their educational achievement distribution via more effective policy.

Performance-pay as an educational policy is currently discussed both in research and in public debate. The principal agent theory application to an education system views teachers as more altruistic than opportunistic, and therefore affected by intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivations. An extensive amount of research has been published on the performance-pay models in education; however, less attention was given to the educators' perceptions towards performance-pay. The current study aims to explore the question of performance pay from the point of view of the Israeli educators. The results reveal Israeli educators are in favour of performance-pay. Moreover, they perceive performance-pay as effective in reshaping students' achievement distribution. Furthermore, the design of rewards systems by merit pay was perceived as less beneficial for improving students' achievement distribution. Finally, educators perceived performance-pay designed as rewarding an individual teacher for the improvement gained in her individual student's performance as the most effective design.

This paper sets out a new budget allocation formula for schools, designed to achieve a more equitable distribution of educational achievement. In addition to needs-based elements, the suggested composite allocation formula includes an improvement component, whereby schools receive budgetary allocations based on a new incentive measure developed in this paper: Improvement in the Educational Achievement Distribution. The development of the budget allocation formula is demonstrated utilizing Israeli data. Large-scale, nationwide datasets relating students' academic achievement to student background variables, teacher profiles, and school characteristics were analyzed to identify appropriate needs-based formula components and to estimate their weights. The results are compared with the funding formulas currently used in Israel. (Contains 16 notes, 4 tables, and 2 figures.)

The educational achievement distribution of Israeli students is characterized by a low level of achievement with a wide achievement gap between high and low achievers compared with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD average. In fact, Israeli student achievement is characterized by the widest gap among the OECD countries. Furthermore, student achievement is unlikely to improve or the gap narrow since the current reforms implemented diminished many of the compensating equitable elements that were previously more dominant in Israeli school finance policy. School funding in Israel has taken on a new direction, emphasizing "adequate" (interpreted as equal) funding for schools. This funding principle is mostly based on student numbers rather than on student needs, and thus departs from the previous equitable allocation. This reform is likely to lead to greater vertical and horizontal disparities and to an unfortunate widening of the achievement gap, an outcome that contradicts declared policy objectives and societal needs. Endnotes are provided.

Israel's early childhood education and care (ECEC) policy for ages 0-3 has evolved significantly, with the Ministry of Education now overseeing it. However, the policy still emphasizes settings over comprehensive child development, excluding centers with fewer than seven children, and many still need to be registered. This study examines Israel's ECEC policy evolution from 1948 to 2021, involving critical influencers like women's organizations, practitioners, academics, activists, and politicians. Recent reforms prioritize children's developmental needs over merely supporting working mothers. The challenge lies in integrating a private, unregistered 0-2 care sector with a centralized public 3-5 care system, leading to a unique organizational structure. It reflects a persisting practice divide, but municipalities increasingly recognize the importance of early childhood education and care. These trends align with global patterns in ECEC for ages 0-3, positioning Israel's experiences within an international context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]