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Background: Aflatoxins cause health hazards to human and animals and has also economical problems. Therefore, the detoxification effect of citric acid was investigated in rice as the main food of Iranian people. Methods: Initially 275 samples of rice were examined for aflatoxins by HPLC. The aflatoxins contaminated samples were later treated by aqueous citric acid and detoxification of aflatoxins were quantified using HPLC. Results: Among the 275 samples analyzed, aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin B2 were detected in 211(76.72% of total) samples. Aflatoxin B1 was detected in 203(73.82% of total) samples with a mean and standard deviation of 2.3±10.21ppb. Aflatoxin B2 together with aflatoxin B1 were detected in only 8(2.91% of total) samples with a mean and standard deviation of 1.38±2.7ppb of aflatoxin B2 and 2.99±1.56 of aflatoxin B1 respectively. Aflatoxin B1 level in 5 samples (1.82%) was above the maximum tolerated level of aflatoxin B1 in Iran (5ppb). However considering the Iranian maximum tolerated level for aflatoxins in rice (30ppb), only 3(1.09%) samples were above the 30ppb and also in regard to the European maximum tolerated level for aflatoxins in rice (4ppb), only 9(3.27%) samples were considered as higher than 4ppb. Conclusion: The HPLC assay showed that although aflatoxins with a concentration of <30 and <4 ppb in the rice samples were completely degraded, but 97.22% degradation occurred in rice contaminated with ⩾30 and ⩾4ppb when treated with 1N citric acid. These results revealed the efficacy of 1N citric acid in reducing aflatoxins levels in rice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Onychomycosis results from invasion of the nail plate by dermatophytes, yeasts or mould species of fungi. The objective was to determine the etiological agents of onychomycosis. Methods: A total of 549 patients clinically suspected of onychomycosis were examined for causative fungal agents. Both direct microscopy and the cultures of the nail material were performed to identify the causative agents between 2004-2005 in Tehran, Iran. Results: Out of 549 cases examined, 263(47.9%) were mycologically proven cases of onychomycosis (139 finger, 124 toe nails), among those 33(6.09%) were only positive in direct microscopic examination. From an etiological point of view, 21.85% of nail infections were caused by yeasts, 10.55% were infected by dermatophytes and 15.5% by non-dermatopyte moulds. Candida albicans was the common yeast causative agent (16.73%) followed by A. flavus (11.78%), T. mentagrophytes (10.26%), C. parapilosis (9.12%), C. tropicalis (8.74%), A. fumigatus (6.08%), T. rubrum (4.94%), A. niger (3.04%), Penicillium spp. (2.66%), Aspergillus spp (1.90%), each of Rhizopus spp and Cladosporium spp (1.52%), C. guilliermondii (1.14%), Scopolariopsis spp. (1.14%), each of C. famata, C. glabrata, C. krusei, S. lusitania, Acremonium spp. (0.76%) and C. homicola (0.38%), T. rubrum (4.94%). Candida species were most common responsible agent for onychomycosis in female hands (74.1%) followed by 17.26% non-dermatophyte moulds. Dermatophytes caused tinea unguim of hand (8.63%) and peduum (37.1%) in males. Onychomycosis of finger nails was most prevalent in females while toenail infection was common in male patients. Conclusion: The yeasts of the Genus Candida and non-dermatophyte moulds are dominant cause of female finger nail onychomycosis and dermathophytes are principal cause of both finger and toe nails in males in Tehran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]