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Background: Based on current evidence, there appears to be an association between peri-intubation hypotension and patient morbidity and mortality. Studies have identified shock indices as possible pre-intubation risk factors for peri-intubation hypotension. Thus, we sought to evaluate the association between shock index (SI), modified shock index (MSI), and diastolic shock index (DSI) and peri-intubation hypotension along with other outcomes., Methods: The present study is a sub-study of a randomized controlled trial involving critically ill patients undergoing intubation. We defined peri-intubation hypotension as a decrease in mean arterial pressure <65 mm Hg and/or a reduction of 40% from baseline; or the initiation of, or increase in infusion dosage of, any vasopressor medication (bolus or infusion) during the 30-min period following intubation. SI, MSI, and DSI were analyzed as continuous variables and categorically using pre-established cut-offs. We also explored the effect of age on shock indices., Results: A total of 151 patients were included in the analysis. Mean pre-intubation SI was 1.0  ±  0.3, MSI 1.5  ±  0.5, and DSI 1.9  ±  0.7. Increasing SI, MSI, and DSI were significantly associated with peri-intubation hypotension (OR [95% CI] per 0.1 increase  =  1.16 [1.04, 1.30], P   =  .009 for SI; 1.14 [1.05, 1.24], P   =  .003 for MSI; and 1.11 [1.04, 1.19], P   =  .003 for DSI). The area under the ROC curves did not differ across shock indices (0.66 vs 0.67 vs 0.69 for SI, MSI, and DSI respectively; P   =  .586). Increasing SI, MSI, and DSI were significantly associated with worse sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score (spearman rank correlation: r  =  0.30, r  =  0.40, and r  =  0.45 for SI, MSI, and DSI, respectively, all P  < .001) but not with other outcomes. There was no significant impact when incorporating age., Conclusions: Increasing SI, MSI, and DSI were all significantly associated with peri-intubation hypotension and worse SOFA scores but not with other outcomes. Shock indices remain a useful bedside tool to assess the potential likelihood of peri-intubation hypotension., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier - NCT02105415., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Background: Little is known about hypoxemia surrounding endotracheal intubation in the critically ill. Thus, we sought to identify risk factors associated with peri-intubation hypoxemia and its effects' on the critically ill., Methods: Data from a multicenter, prospective, cohort study enrolling 1,033 critically ill adults who underwent endotracheal intubation across 16 medical/surgical ICUs in the United States from July 2015-January 2017 were used to identify risk factors associated with peri-intubation hypoxemia and its effects on patient outcomes. We defined hypoxemia as any pulse oximetry ≤ 88% during and up to 30 minutes following endotracheal intubation., Results: In the full analysis (n = 1,033), 123 (11.9%) patients experienced the primary outcome. Five risk factors independently associated with our outcome were identified on multiple logistic regression: cardiac related reason for endotracheal intubation (OR 1.67, [95% CI 1.04, 2.69]); pre-intubation noninvasive ventilation (OR 1.66, [95% CI 1.09, 2.54]); emergency intubation (OR 1.65, [95% CI 1.06, 2.55]); moderate-severe difficult bag-mask ventilation (OR 2.68, [95% CI 1.72, 4.19]); and crystalloid administration within the preceding 24 hours (OR 1.24, [95% CI 1.07, 1.45]; per liter up to 4 liters). Higher baseline S p O 2 was found to be protective (OR 0.93, [95% CI 0.91, 0.96]; per percent up to 97%). Consistent results were seen in a separate analysis on only stable patients (n = 921, 93 [10.1%]) (those without baseline hypoxemia ≤ 88%). Peri-intubation hypoxemia was associated with in-hospital mortality (OR 2.40, [95% CI 1.33, 4.31]; stable patients: OR 2.67, [95% CI 1.38, 5.17]) but not ICU length of stay (point estimate 0.9 days, [95% CI -1.0, 2.8 days]; stable patients: point estimate 1.5 days, [95% CI -0.4, 3.4 days]) after adjusting for age, body mass index, illness severity, airway related reason for intubation (i.e., acute respiratory failure), and baseline S P O 2 ., Conclusions: Patients with pre-existing noninvasive ventilation and volume loading who were intubated emergently in the setting of hemodynamic compromise with bag-mask ventilation described as moderate-severe were at increased risk for peri-intubation hypoxemia. Higher baseline oxygenation was found to be protective against peri-intubation hypoxemia. Peri-intubation hypoxemia was associated with in-hospital mortality but not ICU length of stay., Trial Registration: Clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT02508948 and Registered Report Identifier: RR2-10.2196/11101.

Objective: Hypotension following endotracheal intubation in the ICU is associated with poor outcomes. There is no formal prediction tool to help estimate the onset of this hemodynamic compromise. Our objective was to derive and validate a prediction model for immediate hypotension following endotracheal intubation., Methods: A multicenter, prospective, cohort study enrolling 934 adults who underwent endotracheal intubation across 16 medical/surgical ICUs in the United States from July 2015-January 2017 was conducted to derive and validate a prediction model for immediate hypotension following endotracheal intubation. We defined hypotension as: 1) mean arterial pressure <65 mmHg; 2) systolic blood pressure <80 mmHg and/or decrease in systolic blood pressure of 40% from baseline; 3) or the initiation or increase in any vasopressor in the 30 minutes following endotracheal intubation., Results: Post-intubation hypotension developed in 344 (36.8%) patients. In the full cohort, 11 variables were independently associated with hypotension: increasing illness severity; increasing age; sepsis diagnosis; endotracheal intubation in the setting of cardiac arrest, mean arterial pressure <65 mmHg, and acute respiratory failure; diuretic use 24 hours preceding endotracheal intubation; decreasing systolic blood pressure from 130 mmHg; catecholamine and phenylephrine use immediately prior to endotracheal intubation; and use of etomidate during endotracheal intubation. A model excluding unstable patients' pre-intubation (those receiving catecholamine vasopressors and/or who were intubated in the setting of cardiac arrest) was also developed and included the above variables with the exception of sepsis and etomidate. In the full cohort, the 11 variable model had a C-statistic of 0.75 (95% CI 0.72, 0.78). In the stable cohort, the 7 variable model C-statistic was 0.71 (95% CI 0.67, 0.75). In both cohorts, a clinical risk score was developed stratifying patients' risk of hypotension., Conclusions: A novel multivariable risk score predicted post-intubation hypotension with accuracy in both unstable and stable critically ill patients., Study Registration: Clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT02508948 and Registered Report Identifier: RR2-10.2196/11101., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objectives: Our primary aim was to ascertain the frequency of postintubation hypotension in immunocompromised critically ill adults with secondary aims of arriving at potential risk factors for the development of postintubation hypotension and its impact on patient-related outcomes., Methods: Critically ill adult patients (≥18 years) were included from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2014. We defined immunocompromised as patients with any solid organ or nonsolid organ malignancy or transplant, whether solid organ or not, requiring current chemotherapy. Postintubation hypotension was defined as a decrease in systolic blood pressure to less than 90 mm Hg or a decrease in mean arterial pressure to less than 65 mm Hg or the initiation of any vasopressor medication. Patients were then stratified based on development of postintubation hypotension. Potential risk factors and intensive care unit (ICU) outcome metrics were electronically captured by a validated data mart system., Results: The final cohort included 269 patients. Postintubation hypotension occurred in 141 (52%; 95% confidence interval: 46-58) patients. Several risk factors predicted postintubation hypotension on univariate analysis; however, only Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation III score in the first 24 hours, preintubation shock status, and preintubation hemodynamic instability remained significant on all 4 multivariate analyses. Patients developing postintubation hypotension had higher ICU and hospital mortality (54 [38%] vs 31 [24%], P = .01; 69 [49%] vs 47 [37%], P = .04)., Conclusion: Based on previous literature, we found a higher frequency of postintubation hypotension in the immunocompromised than in the nonimmunocompromised critically ill adult patients. Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation III score in the first 24 hours, preintubation shock status, and preintubation hemodynamic instability were significant predictors on multivariate analyses. Postintubation hypotension led to higher ICU and hospital mortality in those experiencing this complication.

Objectives: Our primary aim was to determine the factors leading to prophylactic endotracheal intubation in intensive care unit (ICU) patients undergoing gastrointestinal endoscopy. Secondary aims were to determine the rate of unplanned endotracheal intubations during endoscopy and to determine the rate of aspiration following endoscopy for patients admitted to the ICU., Methods: Critically ill adult (≥18 years) patients who underwent upper and lower endoscopic procedures from January 2012 to July 2016 in a medical/surgical ICU were included. Determinants of prophylactic endotracheal intubation prior to endoscopy as well as other postprocedure outcomes were electronically captured by a validated data mart system. Given our focus on aspiration in those who were not endotracheally intubated prior to endoscopy, we used a validated definition a priori., Results: A total of 320 patients were included in the final analysis: 76(24%) were intubated prior to endoscopy and 244 (76%) were not. The endotracheally intubated group had a significantly higher Acute Physiologic and Chronic Health Evaluation III (44.5 [16.2] vs 39.5 [15.5]; P = .02) and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (6.9 [4.4] vs 3.8 [3]; P ≤ .01) scores, higher rate of hematemesis within 24 hours of endoscopy (28 [37%] vs 45 [18%]; P ≤ .01), and higher rate of upper endoscopy (72 [96%] vs 181 [74%]; P ≤ .01). We composed a composite outcome for multivariable analyses, which demonstrated the rate of any complication was significantly higher among those who were intubated prior to the procedure versus those who were not intubated previously (odds ratio: 2.80, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.16-6.72, P = .02)., Conclusion: Endoscopy performed in the ICU without endotracheal intubation is safe. However, patient selection for prophylactic intubation prior to endoscopy is of critical importance as illustrated in this study with higher illness severity, planned upper endoscopy, and hematemesis 24 hours prior being key factors on deciding to perform endotracheal intubation. Prophylactic intubation for endoscopy and preexisting cardiac disease were associated with a higher rate of adverse outcomes.

Objectives: In the last decade, the practice of intubation in the intensive care unit (ICU) has evolved. To further examine the current intubation practice in the ICU, we administered a survey to critical care physicians., Design: Cross-sectional survey study design., Setting: Thirty-two academic/nonacademic centers nationally and internationally., Measurements and Main Results: The survey was developed among a core group of physicians with the assistance of the Survey Research Center at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. The survey was pilot tested for functionality and reliability. The response rate was 82 (51%) of 160 among the 32 centers. Although propofol was the induction drug of choice, there was a significant difference with actual ketamine use and those who indicated a preference for it (ketamine: 52% vs 61%; P < .001). The most common airway device used for intubation was direct laryngoscopy (Miller laryngoscope blade) at 56 (68%) followed by video laryngoscopy at 26 (32%). Most (>90%) indicated that they have a difficult airway cart, but only 55 (67%) indicated they have a documented plan to handle a difficult airway with even lower results for documented review of adverse events (49%)., Conclusion: Although propofol was the induction drug of choice, ketamine was a medication that many preferred to use, possibly relating to the fact that the most common complication postintubation is hypotension. Direct laryngoscopy remains the primary airway device for endotracheal intubation. Finally, although the majority stated they had a difficult airway cart available, most did not have a documented plan in place when encountering a difficult airway or a documented process to review adverse events surrounding intubation.

Purpose: Our primary aim was to identify predictors of immediate hemodynamic decompensation during the peri-intubation period., Methods: We conducted a nested case-control study of a previously identified cohort of adult patients needing intubation admitted to a medical-surgical ICU during 2013-2014. Hemodynamic derangement was defined as cardiac arrest and/or the development of systolic blood pressure <90mmHg and/or mean arterial pressure <65mmHg 30min following intubation. Data during the peri-intubation period was analyzed., Results: The final cohort included 420 patients. Immediate hemodynamic derangement occurred in 170 (40%) patients. On multivariate modeling, age/10year increase (OR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03-1.39, p=0.02), pre-intubation non-invasive ventilation (OR 1.71, 95% CI 1.04-2.80, p=0.03), pre-intubation shock index/1 unit (OR 5.37 95% CI 2.31-12.46, p≤0.01), and pre-intubation modified shock index/1 unit (OR 2.73 95% CI 1.48-5.06, p≤0.01) were significantly associated with hemodynamic derangement. Those experiencing hemodynamic derangement had higher ICU [47 (28%) vs. 33 (13%); p≤0.001] and hospital [69 (41%) vs. 51 (20%); p≤0.001] mortality., Conclusions: Hemodynamic derangement occurred at a rate of 40% and was associated with increased mortality. Increasing age, use of non-invasive ventilation before intubation, and increased pre-intubation shock and modified shock index values were significantly associated with hemodynamic derangement post-intubation., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: We aim to report the incidence of post-intubation hypotension in the critically ill, to report in-hospital mortality and length of stay in those who developed post-intubation hypotension, and to explore possible risk factors associated with post-intubation hypotension., Material/methods: Adult (≥18 years) ICU patients who received emergent endotracheal intubation were included. We excluded patients if they were hemodynamically unstable 60 minutes pre-intubation. Post-intubation hypotension was defined as the administration of any vasopressor within 60 minutes following intubation., Results: Twenty-nine patients developed post-intubation hypotension (29/147, 20%). Post-intubation hypotension was associated with increased in-hospital mortality (11/29, 38% vs. 19/118, 16%) and length of stay (21 [10-37] vs. 12 [7-21] days) on multivariate analysis. Three risk factors for post-intubation hypotension were identified on multivariate analysis: 1) decreasing mean arterial pressure pre-intubation (per 5 mmHg decrease) (p-value=0.04; 95% CI 1.01-1.55); 2) administration of neuromuscular blockers (p-value=0.03; 95% CI 1.12-6.53); and 3) intubation complication (p-value=0.03; 95% CI 1.16-15.57)., Conclusions: Post-intubation hypotension was common in the ICU and was associated with increased in-hospital mortality and length of stay. These patients were more likely to have had lower mean arterial pressure prior to intubation, received neuromuscular blockers, or suffered a complication during intubation.

Background: Evidence is lacking for what defines post-intubation hypotension in the intensive care unit (ICU). If a valid definition could be used, the potential exists to evaluate possible risk factors and thereby improve post-intubation. Thus, our objectives were to arrive at the best surrogate for post-intubation hypotension that accurately predicts both in-hospital and 90-day mortality in a population of ICU patients and to report mortality rates between the exposed and unexposed cohorts., Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of emergent endotracheal intubations in a medical-surgical ICU from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2011 to evaluate surrogates for post-intubation hypotension that would predict in-hospital and 90-day mortality followed by an analysis of exposed versus unexposed using our best surrogate. Patients were ≥18 years of age, underwent emergent intubation during their first ICU admission, and did not meet any of the surrogates 60 min pre-intubation., Results: The six surrogates evaluated 60 min post-intubation were those with any systolic blood pressures ≤90 mmHg, any mean arterial pressures ≤65 mmHg, reduction in median systolic blood pressures of ≥20%, any vasopressor administration, any non-sinus rhythm and, fluid administration of ≥30 ml/kg. A total of 147 patients were included. Of the six surrogates, only the administration of any vasopressor 60 min post-intubation remained significant for mortality. Twenty-nine patients were then labeled as hemodynamically unstable and compared to the 118 patients labeled as hemodynamically stable. After adjusting for confounders, the hemodynamically unstable group had a significantly higher in-hospital and 90-day mortality [OR (95% CI); 3.84 (1.31-11.57) (p value = 0.01) and 2.37 (1.18-4.61) (p-value = 0.02)]., Conclusions: Emergently intubated patients manifesting hemodynamic instability after but not before intubation, as measured by vasoactive administration 60 min post-intubation, have a higher association with in-hospital and 90-day mortality.

Purpose: Preintubation shock index (SI) and modified shock index (MSI) have demonstrated predictive capability for postintubation hypotension in emergency department. The primary aim was to explore this relationship in the critical care environment. The secondary aims were to evaluate the relationship of shock indices with other short-term outcomes like mortality and length of stay in intensive care unit., Materials and Methods: This is a nonconcurrent cohort study, conducted in eligible 140 adult intensive care unit (ICU) patients of a tertiary care medical center. Eligibility criterion was emergent endotracheal intubation in apparently hemodynamically stable patients., Results: Preintubation SI ≥ 0.90 had a significant association with postintubation hypotension as defined by systolic blood pressure < 90 mm Hg in the univariate (P = .03; odds ratio [OR], 2.13; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.07-4.35) and multivariate analyses (P = .01; OR, 3.17; 95% CI, 1.36-7.73) after adjusting for confounders. It was also associated with higher ICU mortality in both the univariate (P = .01; OR, 4.00; 95% CI, 1.26-12.67) and multivariate analyses (P = .01; OR, 5.75; 95% CI, 1.58-26.48). There was no association of preintubation MSI with postintubation hemodynamic instability and ICU mortality. No association was found between preintubation SI and MSI, with ICU length of stay and 30-day mortality., Conclusions: Our findings indicate that preintubation SI greater than or equal to 0.90 is a predictor of postintubation hypotension (systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg) and ICU mortality in emergently intubated adult patients in intensive care units., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Endotracheal intubation (ETI) is commonly performed as a life-saving procedure in the intensive care unit (ICU). It is often associated with significant hemodynamic perturbations and can severely impact the outcome of ICU patients. Etomidate is often chosen by many critical care providers for the patients who are hypotensive because of its superior hemodynamic profile compared to other induction medications. However, recent evidence has raised concerns about the increased incidence of adrenal insufficiency and mortality associated with etomidate use. A combination of ketamine and propofol (known as ketofol) has been studied in various settings as an alternative induction agent. In recent years, studies have shown that this combination may provide adequate sedation while maintaining hemodynamic stability, based on the balancing of the hemodynamic effects of these two individual agents. We hypothesized that ketofol may offer a valuable alternative to etomidate in critically ill patients with or without hemodynamic instability., Methods/design: A randomized controlled parallel-group clinical trial of adult critically ill patients admitted to either a medical or surgical ICU at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, MN will be conducted. As part of planned emergency research, informed consent will be waived after appropriate community consultation and notification. Patients undergoing urgent or emergent ETI will receive either etomidate or a 1:1 admixture of ketamine and propofol (ketofol). The primary outcome will be hemodynamic instability during the first 15 minutes following drug administration. Secondary outcomes will include ICU length of stay, mortality, adrenal function, ventilator-free days and vasoactive medication use, among others. The planned sample size is 160 total patients., Discussion: The overall goal of this trial is to assess the hemodynamic consequences of a ketamine-propofol combination used in critically ill patients undergoing urgent or emergent ETI compared to etomidate, a medication with an established hemodynamic profile. The trial will address a crucial gap in the literature regarding the optimal induction agent for ETI in patients that may have potential or established hemodynamic instability. Greater experience with planned emergency research will, hopefully, pave the way for future prospective randomized clinical trials in the critically ill population., Trial Registration: Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02105415. 31 March 2014.

Background: Endotracheal intubation is a common procedure performed for critically ill patients that can have immediate life-threatening complications. Induction medications are routinely given to facilitate the procedure, but most of these medications are associated with hypotension. While etomidate is known for its neutral hemodynamic profile, it has been linked with increased mortality in septic patients and increased morbidity in trauma patients. Ketamine and propofol are effective anesthetics with counteracting cardiovascular profiles. No data are available about the use of this combination in critically ill patients undergoing endotracheal intubation., Case Report: We describe 6 cases in which the combination of ketamine and propofol ("ketofol") was used as an induction agent for endotracheal intubation in critically ill patients with a focus on hemodynamic outcomes. All patients received a neuromuscular blocker and fentanyl, while 5 patients received midazolam. We recorded mean arterial pressure (MAP) 1 minute before induction and 15 minutes after intubation with the combination. Of the 6 patients, 5 maintained a MAP ≥ 65 mmHg 15 minutes after intubation. One patient was on norepinephrine infusion with a MAP of 64 mmHg, and did not require an increase in the dose of the vasopressor 15 minutes after intubation. No hemodynamic complications were reported after any of the intubations., Conclusions: This case series describes the use of the "ketofol" combination as an induction agent for intubation in critically ill patients when hemodynamic stability is desired. Further research is needed to establish the safety of this combination and how it compares to other induction medications.