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The main argument of this paper is that Turkey had close relations with Middle Eastern states during the Atatürk period, which is contrary to the literature that claims the opposite because of Turkey's Western-oriented ideology. The article asks why Turkey as a Western-oriented state sought to have close relations with Middle Eastern states. To answer this question, the article uses discourse analysis focusing on Middle Eastern leaders' visits as represented in Turkish public discourse. Accordingly, it proposes two main answers. Firstly, the paper argues that the new state's relations with Middle Eastern countries played an important role in legitimation of its Westernization projects in the eyes of its citizens. Secondly, the Turkish state marginalized rival political discourses, mainly Islamism, by proving that even Muslim majority countries wanted to imitate modern Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article seeks to explore whether there is evidence based on a survey of Belgian, German, Lithuanian and Polish elites that there is a common European identity or whether distinct European identities are emerging along the "new-old" dividing line between European Union (EU) states. Elites' perception of three potential external threats to the cohesion of the EU are investigated and include the inclusion of Turkey to the EU, the close relationships between some EU countries and the U.S., and the interference of Russia in European affairs. Individual-level factors such as elite left-right self-identification, different visions of the role of the EU, and national identity, are examined to determine how they shape perceptions and affect the formation of distinct European identities.