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Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) can be a serious pest of organic apples (Malus domestica Borkhausen (Rosaceae)) in British Columbia, Canada. Recent discovery that S. ocellana moths are attracted by a lure combining acetic acid (AA) and benzyl nitrile (BN), identified as a caterpillar-induced apple leaf volatile, provides an opportunity to develop bisexual mass-trapping or monitoring systems. Sticky white delta traps baited with benzyl nitrile (10 mg/red rubber septum) and an acetic-acid co-lure (3 mL AA/3-mm open 8-mL vial) caught significantly more moths than either component alone. Acetic-acid co-lures were weakly attractive but benzyl-nitrile-loaded septa were not attractive. Moth catches with AA+BN lures were unaffected by the size and type of rubber septum used to release benzyl nitrile, but catches increased with increasing loads of benzyl nitrile. Male and total moth catches were maximised using membrane release devices loaded with a mixture of benzyl nitrile and a second caterpillar-induced volatile, 2-phenylethanol (PET), in combination with an acetic-acid co-lure (AA+BN-PET). Female catches with AA+BN-PET and AA+BN lures were equivalent. Placing AA+BN lures in traps baited with female sex pheromone lures reduced male catches, but female catches were unchanged. When sticky liners were replaced weekly, white delta traps baited with AA+BN lures caught more moths than similarly baited white Multipher®-I bucket traps, or transparent UnitrapsTM. Multipher-I traps with a propylene glycol killing agent (250 mL) caught more moths than those with Vapona insecticide strips. In apple orchards treated with mating disruption sex pheromones, traps baited with AA+BN caught slightly more total moths than traps baited with sex pheromone. Weekly, total male+female moth catches with either AA+BN or sex pheromone lures showed similar seasonal patterns in both untreated and pheromone-disrupted orchards, respectively. Long-lasting release devices and an organic killing agent are needed to develop certified organic mass-trapping technologies for management of S. ocellana with the AA+BN kairomone.

In this study, we explore the low-temperature thresholds of a pest of apple (Malus pumilaMiller; Rosaceae), the eyespotted bud moth,Spilonota ocellanaDenis and Schiffermüller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in the context of spring frost.Spilonota ocellanaoverwinters as a larva, resuming activity and feeding early in the growing season when it could be vulnerable to unexpected freezing temperatures. We determined that the mean supercooling point of spring instars did not differ for larvae within or outside leaf shelters and ranged from −9.1±0.2 °C for fourth instars, to −7.9±0.2 °C for sixth instars. Larval weight increased with instar and was positively related to the supercooling point. As some insects are freeze tolerant and able to recover from freezing, we also exposed larvae to brief freeze events between −4.5 °C and −9.5 °C and found that the median lower lethal temperature, was −7.3±0.4 °C across all instars; indicating thatS. ocellanaspring instars are susceptible to freezing temperatures above their supercooling point. These low-temperature thresholds suggest that in the spring, S. ocellanalarvae are chill susceptible, and a hard frost (

To assist with plant quarantine inspections, we developed a specific primer set for use in a diagnostic polymerase chain reaction method of distinguishing the codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.). from other tortricid pests in cherries imported from western North America: Archips argyrospila (Walker), A. rosana (L.), Argyrotaenia franciscana (Walsingham), Cacoecimorpha pronubana (Hubner), Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris), Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), Grapholita molesta (Busck), G. packardi Zeller, G. prunivora (Walsh), Pandemis pyrusana (Kearfott), and Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermuller). A 472-bp fragment of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene was sequenced in 3–18 specimens of each species except for A. rosana and P. pyrusana. C. pomonella demonstrated consistent and diagnostic differences from other species in two regions of the COI gene from which forward and reverse primers were designed to amplify a 326-bp segment. The primer sets were used to selectively amplify DNA from specimens obtained from various geographic origins to check for C. pomonella. This method enabled immediate and accurate identification of C. pomonella, and thus provides an effective tool for nations concerned about possible invasions of this pest.

BACKGROUND A new mating disruption formulation for population control of a wide range of tortricid pests, including Spilonota ocellana, was tested in Swedish apple orchards during 2012–2013. Owing to the characteristics of the local agricultural landscape, mating disruption was evaluated in isolated orchards rather than through an area-wide approach. Parameters such as trap shutdown, communication disruption in field cages, damage level and dispenser emission were measured as efficacy indicators. RESULTS The test formulation reduced the catches in monitoring traps for the entire range of the tested species. In field cages, communication between sexes was disrupted for both Adoxophyes orana and Cydia pomonella. The fruit damage caused by leafrollers (including S. ocellana) was reduced by the treatment. The device showed a constant release of all components for the entire flight activity period of these pests. CONCLUSION Single-orchard experiments showed a significant effect on field populations of the leafroller species complex. While promising, in light of the variability of the result, field scouting may be required to enable practitioners to estimate the density of the pests and avoid possible unexpected attacks. Additional experiments are needed to evaluate the efficacy of the product against C. pomonella. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

Four species of the genus Spilonota Stephens, belonging to the subfamily Olethreutinae (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae), are reviewed from North Korea, based on the materials of Hungarian Natural History Museum. Among them, two species, Spilonota lechriaspis Meyrick, 1932 and Spilonota ocellana (Denis et Schiffermuller, 1775), are reported for the first time from North Korea. Photos of adults and the genitalia are provided with brief comments on the distribution. Also a key for the species is given.

The development time of eggs of three of the most noxious leafrollers found in Northeuropean orchards, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), Archips podana (Scopoli), and Pandemis heparana (Denis & Schiffermuller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) was recorded in the laboratory at five constant temperatures between 14 and 25 °C. In this range, developmental rates of the three species did not differ significantly. While the flight periods of these species overlap largely, a single algorithm could be used to devise optimal spraying time(s) for the three species.

Eyespotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), is becoming an important pest of pome fruits in British Columbia because implementation of noninsecticidal controls for codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., have removed routine sprays that inadvertently controlled it. Knowing the phenology of S. ocellana could improve timing of controls for this pest. Seasonal flight activity of male, eyespotted bud moths was monitored using pheromone-baited traps hung in unsprayed apple (Malus pumila Mill.) orchards in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia from 1993 to 1996. Emergence of adult males and females and oviposition was monitored from 1994 to 1996 to establish relationships between their phenology and accumulated degree-days above 10 degrees C air temperature or number of days after the 1st moth was caught (biofix). Biofix occurred between 1-5 June, except in 1996, when it occurred 2-3 wk later, and flight activity continued until late August. Males and females emerged on the same day, 2.0 +/- 1.7 d (mean +/- SD, n = 3 yr) before biofix, and oviposition began 4.3 +/- 1.5 d after biofix. The nonlinear relationship between cumulative trap catch and d or number of degree-days after biofix was modeled with cumulative Weibull functions. A model based on data from Summerland using days after biofix as the predictor variable was more accurate at predicting the interval between biofix and 50% cumulative trap catch for independent data sets from Kelowna and Winfield than a model using degree-days after biofix as the predictor variable. However, the use of degree-days as a predictor variable has wider application to other regions and years. Similar models were used to describe the relationship between days or degree-days after biofix and cumulative emergence of males, emergence of females, and oviposition, respectively. These models will assist in the development of pheromone-based management programs for the eyespotted bud moth, and can be used to formulate control strategies for this pest.

The potential for pheromone-based mating disruption of eye-spotted bud moth (ESBM), Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in apple orchards in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia was examined in small-plot trials. In a preliminary experiment, treatment of the orchard atmosphere with a 99:1 blend of Z8-tetradecenyl acetate (Z8-14:OAc) and Z8-tetradecenyl alcohol (Z8-14:OH) completely inhibited captures of male ESBM in pheromone-baited traps, but treatment with Z8-14:OAc alone did not. Therefore, all subsequent trials used the two-component blend as a disruptant. Mean catches of male ESBM in traps baited with 0.1, 1, 10, or 20 mg of 99:1 Z8-14:OAc and Z8-14:OH were significantly reduced (81-97%) in pheromone-treated plots relative to similar traps placed in control plots. In both control and treated plots, there was a significant positive relationship between trap bait dose and trap catch. In pheromone-treated plots, this suggests that high doses of trap baits override the camouflage effect of disruption or overcome the effect of sensory adaptation and habituation. The number of virgin-female baited traps capturing at least one male ESBM was reduced by 96%, and mating of virgin females on mating tables was reduced by 95% in plots treated with the two-component pheromone. The total amount of Z8-14:OAc released from pheromone disruption dispensers during the latter field trials was estimated to average 6.4 g ha -1 over 11 days or 26.4 mg ha -1 h -1 . The low levels of Z8-14:OH released from disruption dispensers could not be estimated by GC analysis. Dispensers loaded with a 99:1 blend of Z8-14:OAc and Z8-14:OH were highly attractive to males in baited traps, indicating that they have the potential to induce false trail following.

Z8-tetradecenyl acetate (Z8-14OAc andZ8-tetradecenyl alcohol (Z8-14OH) were identified as sex pheromone components of the eyespotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae). Compounds were identified by gas chrornatographic-eleclroantennographic (GC-EAD) and GC-mass spectroscopic analyses and field tested in apple orchards in the Okanagan Valley, B.C. Although Z8-14OAc alone was attractive to male S. ocellana, the addition of 1–5% Z8-14OH strongly synergized its attraction. Field tests comparing the attractiveness of virgin female S. ocellana with various doses of a 99:1 blend of Z8-14OAc and Z8-14OH indicated the natural sex pheromone has only two significant components. A 99:1 blend of Z8-14OAC and Z8-14OH is suggested for monitoring and control of S. ocellana populations in British Columbia.

The sex pheromones of Spilonota ocellana D. & S. and Spilonota laricana Hein. (Lepidoptera:Tortricidae) were identified by chemical analysis and field trapping. Female moths of the two species produce (Z)-8-tetradecenyl acetate, (Z)-8-tetradecen-1-ol and dodecyl acetate in almost the same proportions (98:1:1 and 97:3:1). Males of both species were best attracted to a blend of 10:1 to 1:1 Z8-14Ac:Z8-14OH. This indicates that mating barriers other than sex pheromones exist between sympatric populations.

Synthetic sex pheromones were evaluated in apple orchards against the pests Spilonota ocellana (D. & S.), Archips argyrospilus (Walker), Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris), and Pandemis limitata (Robinson). Significant correlations between spring larval counts and captures of males in summer in pheromone traps occurred only at moderate to high population levels. Correlations between captures of males in summer and fruit damage occurred only with S. ocellana. The attractants for S. ocellana, A. argyrospilus, and C. rosaceana appear satisfactory but that for P. limitata, possibly due to species identification uncertainty and low populations, requires further evaluation.

Lepidoptera larvae on highbush blueberry fed more frequently in flower and fruit clusters than in leafrolls during April, May, and early June. Their feeding reduced the harvest from individual clusters to about half of that of undamaged clusters. Larval feeding caused losses of production in blueberry fields of from 2.5 to 7% depending on leafroller densities. Insecticide treatments in experimental plots decreased leafroller populations and increased cluster yields.

Colpoclypeus florus Walk, is a gregarious ectoparasite of tortricids. Details of biology and annual cycle in orchards in the Netherland are reported. It has four to five generations per year, but only females of the second generation, and some of the third, meet with abundant hosts (Adoxophyes orana F.v.R.) of the proper size. Therefore, the parasite is scarce to virtually absent from Duth orchards except in July and August. A technique for mass-rearing of C. florus is described, producing 6 000 wasps per week. 16 000–28 000 wasps/ha were released in spring, in order to control leafrollers. Although all important leafroller species were parasitized, the rate of parasitization was too low to be effective. RESUME Colpoclypeus florus (Hym. Eulophidae), parasite de tordeuses dans les vergers: techniques d'elevage, biologie et experiences de lutte biologique Colpoclypeus florus Walk., ectoparasite gregaire de Tortricidae, est capable de provoquer un taux de parasitisme eleve dans plusieurs types de cultures, y compris dans les vergers de pommiers. Dans les vergers aux Pay-Bas, ce parasite n'abonde qu'en ete sur la premiere generation d'Adoxophyes orana. Les autres tortricides echappent a ses attaques, parce qu'elles ne peuvent ětre attaquees qu'au printemps. Le but de ces etudes etait donc la mise au point d'une technique d'elevage de masse de C. florus, pour relacher ce parasite en grand nombre dans les vergers au printemps. La technique decrite a permis de produire plusieurs milliers de parasites par semaine. Des lachers de 16 000–28 000 parasites par ha dans un verger soumis a un programme de lutte integree, bien que faisant des victimes parmi toutes les especes importantes de tortricides presentes, etaient loin d'occasionner le taux de parasitisme escompte. Le nombre de degres-jours necessaire au developpement des differents stades de C. florus a ete determine au laboratoire, et son cycle evolutif, inconnu aux Pays-Bas, puisque le parasite ne se trouve qu'en ete, a ete calcule et compare aux observations faites en elevages en plein air. C. florus a de 4 a 5 generations par an, et la comparaison de sa phenologie avec celle des differentes tordeuses explique son absence hors de l'ete. Au laboratoire, Archips podana etait plus parasite, et Pandemis heparana moins parasite qu'A. orana. Le nombre moyen de descendants produits par femelle de C. florus et par chenille-hote variait selon les hotes, dependant probablement de la taille des chenilles. Bien qu'A. orana n'ait pas produit le plus grand nombre de parasites par chenille, elle a ete neanmoins preferee aux autres tortricides comme hote pour les elevages.

Over 36 species of foliage-feeding Microlepidoptera and 13 species of Macrolepidoptera were found during 2 years of sampling in 17 southern Michigan apple orchards. Most of these were in the family Tortricidae. Among the most abundant and widely distributed species, especially in abandoned orchards, were the tortricids Pseudexentera mali Freeman, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), and Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris). The choreutid Choreutis pariana (Clerck) was abundant in some abandoned orchards, but was virtually absent from commercial orchards. The species sampled in commercial orchards tended to be those that were most widely distributed and abundant in abandoned orchards. Microlepidoptera found in commercial orchards were a subsample of the species in abandoned orchards. Thus, an understanding of the factors that control Microlepidoptera distribution and abundance in abandoned orchards, along with information on responses to pesticides, will help predict future species trends in commercial orchards.

An illustrated key to the last-instar larval cephalic structures of parasites reared from larvae of Spilonota ocellana (D. & S.), notes on habits of the parasites, and a description of their cocoons and pupae are given. Rearing techniques are described. The parasites reared are Gelis tenellus (Say), Hyposoter sp., Meteorus argyrotaeniae Johansen, Phanerotoma recurvariae Cush., Apanteles sp., Agathis dimidiator (Nees.), Euderus cushmani Cwfd., and Sympiesis bimaculatipennis (Grlt.).

In July, 1956, studies on mortality factors affecting abundance of immature stages of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (D. & S.), and the pistol casebearer, Coleophora serratella (L.), on apple were initiated in permanent orchard plots at Rougemont, Que. The object was to prepare life tables (Morris and Miller, 1954) for successive generations of each species through the rise and fall of a local epidemic. In preparing such tables, sound sampling techniques are necessary (Morris, 1955). This is a report on variation in samples, and in some mortality factors, of immature stages of the two species for the years 1956 to 1959, and on sampling recommendations.

The effect of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner on the arthropod fauna of young apple trees when used as a fullseason spray program during 1961 and 1962 is discussed. Mortality of overwintering larvae of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), was approximately 50% higher in the Bacillus plot; spring larval growth was retarded, pupation delayed, and mortality increased; and the summer larval infestation was less than half that occurring in the check. Casebearer populations were adversely affected; the apple aphid, Aphis pomi De Geer, population was increased; and aphid predators apparently were unaffected by the Bacillus sprays. Fruit injury was reduced by approximately 50% in the Bacillus plot owing primarily to its adverse effect on codling moth, Carpocapsa pomonella (L.) ; redbanded leaf roller, Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker); and eye-spotted bud moth larval populations. The European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), population increased and phytoseiid mites decreased on Red Delicious trees in the Bacillus plot, with the former reaching numbers twice as high as those attained in the check. The potential role of B. thuringiensis in apple insect control programs is discussed.

A nuclear-polyhedrosis virus disease of Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermüller) is described. The disease was found in the majority of the Nova Scotia apple orchards sampled in a nine-year survey. Under favorable conditions the disease caused high mortalities but usually less than 10 per cent of a host population was killed by the virus.Agathis laticinctus (Cresson) killed an average of 25 per cent of late-instar larvae.

The effect of insect populations on fruit was studied in a mature apple orchard under a natural and 2 artificial environments from 1959 through 1962. About 15, approximately 2%, of the 763 species collected from the orchard injured the fruit directly. Ninety-nine to 100% of the apples in the check and captan environments were injured each year, with the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst); apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh; and codling moth, Carpocapsa pomonella (L.), causing most of the injury, in that order. Fruit injury by other species in the check and captan environments was insignificant. Injury in the DDT-captan block was gencrally low except for that caused by larvae of red-banded leaf roller, Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker), and of eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermuller), which progressively increased each year. Apple scab, Venturia inequalis (Winters), was an important factor in the natural (check) environment, affecting tree growth, fruiting, and insect populations. The last mentioned were generally favorably affected in the captan environment, and adversely so in the DDT-captan. Fruit production increased substantially from the check to the captan and DDT-captan blocks with an average yield ratio of 1:1.2:2.1, respectively, for the 4-year study. An additive effect was obtained with the use of DDT in the DDT-captan block, which was greater than the combined effect of scab and insect population suppression, resulting in increased tree vigor and fruit set which improved each year.

Studies on integrated control of apple pests were conducted in Door County, Wisconsin, from 1960 through 1962. Ryania, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, phosphamidon, and lead arsenate were used in various combinations and dosage rates. Carbaryl and captan were used as the insecticide and fungicide check, respectively. Apples harvested from the ryania- Bacillus plot were 88 and 86% free of insect injury in 1960 and 1961, respectively, compared with 97 and 95% in the carbaryl plot and 37 and 45% in the captan plot. Ninety-one percent of the apples in the lead arsenate-ryania plot and 94% of those from the lead arsenate-phosphamidon plot were devoid of insect injury in 1961, compared with 95% for the carbaryl program. In 1962, apples from the ryania- Bacillus -lead arsenate plot were 94% free of insect injury compared with 95, 96 and 80% from the lead arsenate-phosphamidon, carbaryl, and captan plots, respectively. The codling moth, Carpocapsa pornonella (L.), red-banded leaf roller, Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker), and eye-spotted bud moth, spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), in that order, were responsible for most of the insect injury, except in 1962 when the codling moth was a minor problem. The highest two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Koch), population occurred in the carbaryl plot where phytoseiids were practically eliminated, The European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), increased progressively each year of the study in the plot where B. thuringiensis was used, The high population which occurred in 1962 caused economic injury to the foliage and fruit. The lead arsenate-phosphamidon program adversely affected both the phytophagous and predaceous mite populations. Six phytosciid species were collected in the captan plot during 1960. Amblyseius fallacies (Carman) and Typhlodromus Caudiglans (Oudemans) were the most abundant. The ryania-lead arsenate program, was considered the most effective for integrated control of apple pests because of its overall effectiveness for both direct and indirect pests without adversely affecting natural enemies of the latter.

The bionomics of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), on sour cherry in Wisconsin from 1960 through 1961 showed that the eggs had hatched by the last week in August and larvae had left the leaves by October 4 to construct overwintering hibernacula, entering hibernation as third instar larvae and moulting once inside the hibernacula before spring. Seventy per cent of the larvae overwintered on fruiting spurs. Natural mortality of the overwintering larvae averaged 15% in 1960 and 17% in 1961. The larvae became active when the buds started swelling in late April, left their hibernacula approximately 1 week later when the terminal leaf buds showed ⅛ to ¼ inch green extended growth, and attacked the fruit buds primarily, eating into the base of the bud and feeding therein on the developing flower parts. The larvae gradually left the fruit buds to feed on the expanding leaves, and later constructed “leaf nests” in the fully developed terminals. Larval activity was correlated closely with temperature as shown by an increase in fruit bud injury from 4% to 53% and from 5% to 33% in the 7-day interval between green tip and popcorn stage of tree growth in 1960 and 1961, respectively. By the petal-fall stage 92% and 65% of the fruit buds were injured, 86% and 51% of the pistils destroyed and 100% and 85% of the leaf clusters infested by larvae in 1960 and 1961, respectively. An average of 4% of the cherries was injured between petal fall and harvest in 1961. Larvae started pupating by June 15 and pupation was nearly completed by July 20, primarily in “twig nests” on the wood. Adults were present from the first week in July until the last week in August, reaching their peak abundance the first week in August. Eggs were deposited primarily on the underside of the leaves.

The domestic apple, Malus pumila (49), native to southern Eurasia (13, 17, 49, 65), now occurs as a cuItigen in favored localities in all of the tem­ perate regions of the world. By becoming established in areas outside its orig­ inal habitat, it became a potential new food source for insects indigenous to these regions. Certain species have adopted it as a host in all of these areas. As a matter of fact, the principal objective in this review is to attempt to establish the basis or bases for these acts of acceptance. Apple has proved especially attractive to the phytophagous fauna of North America. It seems probable that more than 500 species now use it as a host, at least at some level of acceptance (32, 56) . With so many species involved in North America and elsewhere in the world, it obviously becomes necessary to restrict any critical study of the acceptance of this plant as food to some representative segment of this fauna. The segment used in this review is the lepidopterous family Tortricidae. It includes forms ranging from the monophagous to some which are highly polyphagous. Furthermore, the tor­ tricids include more apple pests, worldwide, than any other insect family. Prominent among these are such cosmopolitan species as the codling moth, Laspeyresia pomonella, oriental fruit moth, Grapholitha moiesta, and brown apple budworm, Spilonota ocellana. This review follows those authorities who classify the olethreutids (Oleth­ reutinae) and tortricids (s.s.) (Tortricinae) as subfamilies of the Tortricidae (5, 10, 11, 14,21,22, 35, 42, 44, 46). The number of tortricids using apple as a host is fairly extensive. Chapman & Lienk (8), for example, report that at least 47 species may be so involved in New York. Oku (44) lists 31 spe­ cies for Japan. Fewer numbers1 were found in similar studies made in Eu­ rope: thus, only 14 species have been reported to occur in England (15,28); 13 in Belgium (57); 13 in Sweden (59); 12 in the vicinity of Moscow (37); 22 in the Crimea (23), and 25 in the Slavyansky District, Northwest Cauca­ sus (64) . Litvinava (33) reports finding 28 "orchard" tortricids in faunal studies made in the vicinity of Minsk, Byelorussia, USSR. While most of

The eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (D. & S.), has a long history as a pest in Nova Scotia apple orchards, serious damage by it being reported as early as 1891 (Fletcher, 1892). Its status has fluctuated considerably, the most notable outbreak reaching its peak in 1927. This outbreak occurred when dusts were being used for the control of orchard pests, and (Kelsall 1932) was one of the two main reasons for abandoning the general use of dusts after 1927. The bud moth declined rapidly after 1927 and by 1931 was rated a minor pest (Gilliatt, 1932a). After flutuating at relatively low levels for seven years, it increased in importance and by 1942 was again a major pest. From 1942 to 1952, there was little change in its general status although large fluctuations in population were observed in orchards in which certain insecticides had been used (Stultz, 1950). During 1953, there was a marked decline in the average population level although reductions did not occur in all orchards.

It has been established that a complex of predacious arthropods on apple trees in Nova Scotia can control phytophagous mite populations (Lord, 1949). Some of the predators, when sufficiently numerous, may also be important in the control of other pests such as the eye-spotted bud-moth, Spilonota ocellana (D. & S.), and the codling moth, Carpocapsa pomonella (L.). When predation has reduced the mite population to small numbers, the insect predators almost disappear from the orchard. In most orchards in this province, the use of spray materials innocuous to predators has greatly reduced the phytophagous mite populations. The low mite population is an important gain but it is not known whether the attendant small numbers of predators is advantageous in the natural control of pests in general. This will be answered in time by the experience of the growers and, meanwhile, further research is needed on the interrelations of the phytophagous and predacious species and on how they are affected by orchard practices and other factors. This involves studies on the food preferences and behaviour of many species. In addition, means must be found to modify cultural practices to make conditions as favourable as possible for certain species of predators.

A 4-year study of the naturally occurring biotic control factors affecting the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermuller), on apple in Wisconsin revealed the existence of parasitic, predatory, and microorganismal agents. Nine hymenopterous parasites, three predators, and four pathogens were involved. Principal parasitic species were Itoplectis conquisitor (Say) and Habrocytus phycidis Ashmead. Aspergillus flavus Link and a polyhedral virus were the most prevalent causes of disease. A high mortality occurring in the pupal stage could not be attributed to known causes. It is postulated that the comparatively low numbers of primary species and their small part in the regulation of the eye-spotted bud moth population may have been due mainly to the extensive use of pesticides in the area. The need for the use of selective pesticides in an integrated control program is emphasized.

Summer larvae of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (D. and S.), appeared in unequal densities on certain portions of apple trees in Door County, Wisconsin. The resulting non-random distribution introduced a bias in data obtained of the summer larvae. This phenomenon has been reported in Quebec apple orchards (LeRoux and Reimer, 1959) where densities of summer larvae were consistently greater in the upper than in the lower tree levels, and quadrant differences often occurred in the number of eggs parasitized, spring and summer larval shelters, and pupal shelters. The present study was initiated to determine the extent of the uneven distribution of summer eye-spotted bud moth larvae and nests on young, non-bearing apple trees. Summer larvae appear shortly after the first of August when eggs begin to hatch (Oatman, 1960).

Blacklight traps were used successfully in commercial apple And cherry orchards of Wisconsin to survey fruit insect pests from 1957-62. The results of the last 3 years are given for adult populations of the codling moth, Carpocapsa pomonella (L.); redbanded leaf roller, Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker); fruit-tree leaf roller, Archips argyrospilus (Walker); eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller); destructive prune Worm, Mineola scitutella Hulst; and the cherry fruitworm, Grapholitha packardi Zeller. The effect of variations in the growing season on emergence, peak abundance, and seasonal distribution of a species; importance of these data for timing and number of applications necessary for adequate protection of the fruit; effect of the spray program used on the kind and number of species trapped in an orchard; and the possibilities of grower-operated blacklight traps for community use are discussed.

The effectiveness of an experimental spray program for integrated control of insects affecting sour cherries was investigated in Door County, Wisconsin. The sod of a Montmorency cherry orchard was treated with endrin in October 1960. In 1961 and 1962, one half of the orchard was treated with foliar sprays of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner plus dodine (fungicide) in the petal-fall and cover sprays. The second half received dodine only. A survey of leaf nests of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), in June of both years showed that the spring larvae were retarded in development and their mortality increased in the Bacillus plot with no apparent adverse effect on larval parasitization. Fruit surveys at harvest each year revealed no evidence of injury by the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst). Total fruit injury was 4% or less in both the check and treated plots, with external injury by lepidopterous larvae averaging less than 2%. A piercingsucking type injury by an unknown species accounted for 3% of the total fruit injury in both plots in 1962. Further experimental studies are suggested, using foliar sprays of B. thuringiensis in sour cherry orchards where endrin is used for rodent control.

Certain Lepidopterous larvae including Zophodia grossulariae Riley, Anarsia lineatella Zeller, Spilonota ocellana (D. and S.) and Recurvaria nanella Busck were found invariably to reject the first mouthfuls of food when entering the host plants. Hulstea undulatella Clemens, Autographa californica (Speyer), and a species of Loxostege, all of which differ from the above mentioned in being external feeders, did not reject or “spit” food.

In apple orchards in Nova Scotia, general use of a program of selective sprays for several years has been followed by a reduction in the amount of damage caused by important insect and mite pests. These pests include the oystershell scale ( Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.)), the codling moth ( Carpocapsa povionella (L.)), the eye-spotted bud moth ( Spilonota ocellana (D. & S.)), the apple aphid ( Aphis pomi DeG.), the rosy apple aphid (Anuraphis roseus Baker), and the European red mite ( Panonychus ulmi (Koch)). Although proof has not been obtained in all cases, the evidence indicates that, when selective pesticides were applied, beneficial species survived in greater numbers, and in some cases increased substantially. In developing such a program emphasis should be placed on use of selective pesticides, timing of pesticide applications to avoid susceptible stages of beneficial species, and establishment of the minimum dosages required to control pests.

The effect of insect populations on sour cherries in the absence of insecticide sprays was studied in a Montmorency cherry orchard from 1959 through 1962. Fruit from trees sprayed only with a fungicide (dodine) was examined for insect injury at harvest. Results for 1961 and 1962 are given in detail. Seventeen percent were injured in 1961 and 20% in 1962 with the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), causing 14 and 17%, respectively. The remaining 3% injury was due primarily to lepidopterous larvae, including internal injury by the cherry fruitworm, Grapholitha packardi Zeller, and the destructive pruneworm, Mineola scitulella Hulst, and external feeding by the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), and fruit-tree leaf roller, Archips argyrospilus (Walker), The plum curculio was responsible for additional losses of 9 and 6% owing to fruit “drop” prior to harvest in 1961 and 1962, respectively. The total crop loss caused by insect injury was 26%.

A study of the bionomics of the destructive prune worm, Mineola scitulella Hulst, on sour cherry in Wisconsin from 1960 through 1962 showed that the overwintering larvae left their hibernacula in early May just as the buds started swelling, penetrated the fruit buds primarily, and fed inside on the developing flower parts, injuring 32.8 and 7.4% of the fruit buds, and destroying 18.1 and 6.2% of the pistils by the petal-fall stage in 1961 and 1962, respectively. The larvae started leaving the buds during the early-bloom stage to construct nests in and feed on the expanding blossom and leaf clusters prior to pupating in the soil. Pupation began during early bloom and was usually completed by petal fall around the first of June. Adult emergence started ordinarily the last week in June and was over by the last week in July with peak emergence occurring during the first week in July. Newly emerged summer larvae often penetrated the ripening cherries, feeding just beneath the skin for a short time before emerging to construct their hibernacula in sheltered areas on the tree. Larval-infested fruit at harvest was 0.14% in 1961 and 1.5% in 1962. An earlier and shorter growing season in 1962 resulted in less injury to the fruit buds and pistils by the spring larvae, but a higher infestation of the fruit at harvest by the summer larvae. On an equal population basis, in 1961 the destructive prune worm was more injurious than the eye-spotted bud moth ( Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller)) to the fruit buds and pistils.

The eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana Schiff., has appeared in western New York as a major apple pest. In 1928 trees were defoliated early in the season and over 50 per cent of the fruit injured in a number of instances. Summer spraying reduced the injury but left an excess of arsenical residue on the fruit. Moths were killed with nicotine dust, and caught in bait and light traps. Parasites were not important.

Populations of foliage-feeding Lepidoptera were studied under an aphicide-treated and a check environment in a young, nonbearing Red Delicious and Cortland apple orchard in Door County, Wisconsin, in 1959 and 1960. Seventeen species in nine families were collected from the orchard in 1959 and 83 species in 19 families in 1960. The greatest number or species were represented in the Noctuidae. The three most abundant species were Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker), and Lithocolletis crataegella Clemens in that order. Four species occurred in two generations; all others had a single generation. The number of individuals and species present were influenced by tree variety, plot environment, and year, the highest counts occurring on Red Delicious and under the check environment.

Investigations from 1958 through 1962 in a young apple orchard in Door County Wisconsin revealed that the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis • Schiffermuller), pupated primarily in twig nests which were constructed some distance from the larval feeding sites. Larvae were shown to complete their development sooner on Red Delicious than on Cortland. Bud development was not regarded as a primary contributing factor to these developmental differences.

For several years a consistent incidence of nonparasitic mortality of pupae of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis & Schiffermuller), was observed in Door County, Wisconsin, apple and cherry orchards. The pupae revealed no obvious external injury and when dissected most of them contained dried organic matter with little or no visible adult structures. A similar phenomonon has been observed with other insects (Regan 1923) ; and recently Samuelson (1961) reported a 20%-unaccountedfor pupal mortality in the cotton square borer, Strymon melinus (Hubner), and Dobson (1961) found that 19% of wheat bulb fly, Leptohylemyia coarctata (Fallen), pupae died from unknown causes. The importance of a “pupal viability”figure in experiments was recognized by Bay and Legner (1963), and Legner and Bay (1964) in culturing Hippelates eye gnats, where certain percentages of reared pupae died without development of adult structures. Pupal viability in their experiments and in current experiments by the senior author with house flies, Musca doinestica L., was influenced to a large degree by the amount and kind of food available to the larvae (Legner and Bay 1961). In nature examples of deleterious effects of severe winters and storms on insects have been noted (Carter 1961, Richards 1961, Shands et al. 1956) ; however, the existence of more discreet mortality factors in natural insect populations dining apparent optimum developmental conditions is often overlooked or ignored.

Thuricide® (a microbial insecticide having 30 × 109 spores of Bacillus thuringiesis Berliner per gram) applied on apple for control of the eye-spotted bud moth, Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermuller), apparently retarded spring larval development and produced noticeably smaller larvae. Mortality of the spring larvae in the Thuricide-treated section was 16.5% on Red Delicious and 18.7% on Cortland. In the check only 1.5% and 9.5% mortality occurred on Red Delicious and Cortland respectively. Significantly greater numbers of summer larvae were collected in the check than in the treated sections Reared adult moths from the Thuricide block were significantly smaller than those from the check. This size difference was greater with later adult formation periods. The length and width of both males and females in the Thuricide-treated section decreased significantly with later formation periods but increased significantly in size in the check with later formation periods. The immediate effects of Thuricide on the eye-spotted bud moth population were not considered economic control; however, the long-range effects might be promising.