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In Sweden, a substantial amount of railway bridges is approaching their intended lifespans and are planned to be replaced. However, it is not sustainable neither from a financial nor an environmental perspective to replace these bridges if they are still sound and safe. Thus, an evaluation of their actual capacity is required with the aim of extending their lifespans. A way to obtain a more accurate capacity is to determine the loads that are acting on them. Available literature points out the lack of experimental investigations on sleeper-ballast contact pressure, as well as on the stress distribution along and across the ballast. Consequently, railway bridge design has been based on traditional rather than rational assumptions, which can be quite conservative. In this paper, a review of models is carried out for evaluating stress patterns on the surface of the slab on ballasted concrete bridges. Then, a simplified finite element model of a concrete trough bridge, a common type of structure in Sweden, is used in a parametric analysis aimed to understand how the identified pressure distribution patterns affect the performance of this type of structure. Finally, with the purpose of studying how some parameters influence the bridge safety, a probabilistic reliability analysis is used. The reliability index beta (b) is obtained using the polynomial response surface method and its value is compared for different boundary condition scenarios. Also, the sensitivity factors for the considered random variables are compared and analyzed. Results show that the assumption of support condition and pressure pattern has a significant impact on the capacity, failure mode and probability of failure of this type of structure. ISBN för värdpublikation: 978-981-18-2016-8

The bond failure is studied of a reinforced concrete trough bridge strengthened with near surface mounted reinforcement of carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) bars. The bars were embedded in epoxy resin in pre-sawed groves in the soffit of the bridge edge beams. The failure was modelled with 3D nonlinear finite elements, and it was possible to study the process from initiation to final collapse. A local bond failure in the interface between the concrete and the epoxy resin initiated a redistribution of forces in the bridge leading to yielding in the longitudinal and vertical steel reinforcement, rupture of stirrups and finally a full failure of the bridge. The bridge was a 50-year-old typical concrete railway trough bridge in Örnsköldsvik, in northern Sweden. It was going to be dismantled due to a relocation of the railway line. The aim of the loading test was to get detailed information of the bridge behaviour all the way up to the final failure. The test was a part of the European Research Project “Sustainable Bridges” regarding assessment and strengthening of existing bridges. The bridge was strengthened in bending before the loading test to avoid an uninteresting flexural failure. Failure was reached for an applied load of 11,7 MN by pulling downwards a steel beam placed in the middle of one of the two spans. The FE calculations presented here show the effect of the strengthening with CFRP, the effect of the epoxy when using the Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement (NSMR) strengthening method and the high load-carrying capacity of this bridge type Forskningsfinansiär: European Union 6th Framewok Program; The Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM); Botniabanan; Cervenka Consulting; Nordisk Spännarmering; Savonia University of Applied Sciences; University of Oulu; Skanska Sverige AB; STO Skandinavia AB; Örnsköldsviks kommun; University of Minho (UMINHO) Sustainable Bridges

The aim of the current project is to digitalize inspections and monitoring of structures’ health using drones in order to identify and allow for easier inspection of damages in transport infrastructure. The objectives set are to perform aerial photogrammetry to recreate the as-is condition to enable off-site inspection of difficult to reach areas in structures and identify damages – e.g. cracks, spalling, corrosion. The drone is controlled either autonomously or with the use of a remote control by a pilot from the ground. The drone can carry a wide range of imaging technologies including still, video and infrared sensors. The high flexibility and accessibility of drones in hard-to-reach or risk exposed areas makes the airborne photogrammetry a better alternative to the ground-based method. Given the potential of UAVs to help bridge inspectors performing inspections off-site, the Swedish Transport Administration developed a demonstration project to evaluate the effectiveness and future opportunities within inspection field. Five bridges of varying sizes and types were selected as demonstrators. Data collection including the 3D model creation has been performed by three different contractors while the model-based inspection for all bridges was performed by the same team. It has been shown that the 3D models could serve as a tool for bridge inspectors from which measurements could be extracted and certain damages identified. A full off-site inspection is currently not feasible as some areas of the bridges were difficult to capture. The models are only providing near-surface information, and therefore, in-depth inspection should not be overlooked. The difficulty to capture local defects such as delaminations and narrow cracks also reduces versatility. The main conclusion from the study is that drones cannot be used independently to conduct inspections. Currently, they can only be used as a complement to traditional inspections. The added value of a 3D model derives from the possibility of using it as tool to better plan large inspections in the field and/or future maintenance work.

Load testing is a way to control the capacity and function of a bridge. Methods and recommendations for load testing are described and examples are given form tests carried out. In order not to damage the bridge being tested, the load must be limited, often to be within the serviceability limit state (SLS). Numerical models can be calibrated by load tests and then be used to check the carrying capacity for higher loads than what has been tested. Need for further work and recommendations are discussed. By effective planning costs can be saved and a more sustainable use of bridges can be obtained.

To calibrate methods for condition assessment of prestressed concrete (PC) bridges, tests were carried out on a 55 year old five-span bridge with a length of 121 m in Kiruna in northern Sweden. Both non-destructive and destructive full-scale tests were performed. This paper presents results regarding methods for assessment of the structural capacity of concrete bridges.

To calibrate methods for condition assessment of prestressed concrete (PC) bridges, tests were carried out on a 55 year old five-span bridge with a length of 121 m in Kiruna in northern Sweden. Both non-destructive and destructive full-scale tests were performed. This paper presents results regarding the residual forces in the prestressed reinforcement.

Redesigning buildings to improve their space efficiency and allow changes in use is often essential during their service lives to comply with shifts in living standards and functional demands. This may require the introduction of new openings in elements e.g. walls, which inevitably reduces their structural performance, and hence necessitates repair or strengthening. Here the authors report an experimental investigation of the effectiveness of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)-based strengthening for restoring the axial capacity of a solid reinforced concrete wall after cutting openings. Nine half-scale specimens, designed to represent typical wall panels in residential buildings with and without door-type openings, were tested to failure. FRP-confinement and mechanical anchorages increased the axial capacity of walls with small and large openings (which had 25% and 50% reductions in cross-sectional area, respectively) by 34-50% and 13-27%, to 85-94.8% and 56.5-63.4% of their pre-cutting capacity, respectively. Current design models are assessed against experimentally obtained capacities.

To calibrate methods for condition assessment of prestressed concrete (PC) bridges, tests are planned for a 50 year old five-span bridge with a length of 121 m in Kiruna in northern Sweden. Both non-destructive and destructive full-scale tests will be performed. This paper summarises the test programme, which comprises evaluation of the structural behaviour of the bridge, the residual forces in the prestressed steel, methods for strengthening using carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) and the shear resistance of the bridge slab. To calibrate methods for condition assessment of prestressed concrete (PC) bridges, tests are planned for a 50 year old five-span bridge with a length of 121 m in Kiruna in northern Sweden. Both non-destructive and destructive full-scale tests will be performed. This paper summarises the test programme, which comprises evaluation of the structural behaviour of the bridge, the residual forces in the prestressed steel, methods for strengthening using carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) and the punching capacity of the bridge slab. Godkänd; 2014; 20140829 (nikbag); Konferensartikel i tidskrift

This document presents the work related to the assessment of the effectiveness of strengthening reinforced concrete (RC) dapped-end beams using carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP). Several non-linear finite element analyses were performed using different strengthening configurations, from the simplest solutions to the more complex ones in which different application schemes were overlapped. The work is focused on evaluating the strengthening systems, considering the ultimate capacities they can lead to and the failure modes involved. There were modeled 17 different strengthening configurations. While some of them provided a marginal in the ultimate load that can be applied, several of them provided important load bearing capacity increase. The observed failure modes ranged from a sudden failure of the whole strengthening system up to the desired progressive failure of the individual components of each strengthening system. Godkänd; 2013; 20131113 (cospop)

This paper investigates the effectiveness of strengthening reinforced concrete (RC) dapped-end beams using carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP). Parametric studies are performed by means of numerical simulations in which several types of composite materials as well as their orientation are combined. The primary objectives of this research were the evaluation of the strengthening systems in terms of ultimate capacities and the failure modes involved. Results show that only some of them provide significant load bearing capacity increase. The observed failure modes ranged from a sudden failure up to the desired progressive failure of the strengthening system. Validerad; 2013; 20131212 (cospop)

During the last two decades, strengthening concrete structures with epoxy bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) has shown excellent results in increasing bearing capacity. However, there are some limitations with epoxy coated concrete surfaces, e.g.; low permeability which may provoke freeze/thaw problems, poor thermal compatibility to the concrete substrate which makes epoxy coating more sensitive to the surrounding temperature and regulations when it comes to the security and health (allergic reactions) of applicators and third party users. In this respect, using mineral based composites (MBC) may overcome some of these challenges associated with epoxy bonded strengthening systems. MBC, in this context, refers to high strength fibers bonded to the surface using a mineral based bonding agent. This study examines the cracking behavior and strain development of shear MBC strengthened RC beams. The results show that using MBC as shear strengthening postpones the formation of macro-cracks and that a considerable strengthening effect is achieved by using MBC. Godkänd; 2013; 20131113 (gabsas)

Validerad; 2011; 20111215 (mem)

The shear failure mechanisms of flexural reinforced concrete (RC) members is highly complex; its precise details cannot be explained with simple analytical relationships, and are the topic of considerable scientific debate. The studies described and examined the three most used shear theories in the world – the fixed angle truss model (45°TM), the variable angle truss model (VAT), and modified compression field theory (MCFT). These three theories rest on the assumption that a beam loaded in shear behaves as a truss. However, this assumption is applied in different ways in various codes. In this thesis, three major standards, each of which uses a different implementation of these theories (CEN, 2005; ACI-318, 2008; CSA-A23.3, 2009), were used to predict the shear force capacity of a RC railway bridge that was strengthened in flexure with near surface mounted (NSM) carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) and then tested to failure. The data obtained in this test indicated that the codes underestimated the real shear behaviour of the bridge. There are some accepted reasons for such inaccuracies, namely the use of empirically derived equations in the ACI (2008) and CSA (2009) standards and the omission of the concrete contribution in CEN (2005). Moreover, the NSM reinforcement material used exhibits elastic behaviour until the point of failure; it was found that the use of such materials introduces further decreases the accuracy of the models’ predictions. The strains that developed in the area of the bridge where shear failure was expected were monitored throughout the test using a specially-developed photographic method. The results obtained with this method were promising, especially for research purposes, since it generated reliable data using relatively affordable tools.The use of FRP for shear strengthening introduces further complications to the problem of shear in reinforced concrete members because introduces two new failure modes: debonding at the concrete interface and fibre rupture of the FRP. Extensive research has been carried out on FRP shear strengthening around the world. Much of the data gathered in these studies has been compiled in a database. By analysing this large database, it was found that the effectiveness of FRP shear strengthening is influenced by many factors, including the properties of the FRPs, the FRP strengthening configuration used, the nature of the beam’s cross-section, the shear span to depth ratio, the presence of stirrups, and the nature of the tensile reinforcement. Analysis of this database also demonstrated that most of the studies reported in the literature had focused on investigating the influence of the properties of the FRPs and the different configuration systems, and that the other factors mentioned above have been sparsely investigated if not totally ignored. The strengthening configuration and the amount of fibres influence the failure mode of the FRP and the shear force that it can carry. It appears that the side-bonded and the U-wrapped configurations are most prone to failure by debonding. This is consistent with the findings of various small experimental programs, and was confirmed by analysis of the larger dataset. These findings are relevant because failure of the FRP by debonding is more complex mechanism than is the rupture of the fibres mechanism. As is shown in this thesis, the extent to which the FRP variables (properties and strengthening configuration) can affect the point at which failure occurs and the mode by which it happens is dependent on the quantity of stirrups and tensile reinforcement in the beam, to the position of the load in relation to the size of the cross section (shear span to depth ratio), the type of strengthening configuration, the concrete and FRP properties. For design purposes, it is important to predict the shear failure of FRP shear strengthened beams with as much accuracy as possible. Therefore, a design model for debonding of the shear strengthening of concrete beams with FRP was developed and the limitations of the truss model analogy were highlighted. The fracture mechanics approach was used to analyse the behaviour of the bond between the FRP composites and the concrete. In this model, of the parameters examined, the fracture energy of concrete and the axial rigidity of the FRP are considered to be the most important. The effective strain in the FRP when debonding occurs was determined and the limitations of the anchorage length over the cross section were analysed; ultimately, a simple iterative method for shear debonding was proposed. Since the model’s predictions were considered satisfactory but not really precise, an extensive review of the literature was conducted. All of the significant theoretical models for predicting the shear capacity of FRP strengthened RC beams that have been reported over the years were analysed and commented on, and their predictions were compared to the results recorded in a preliminary experimental database. The predictions of the models that are most widely used in design were compared to the experimental results reported in the database; the model developed by the author was evaluated alongside these more established models. All of the models, including that presented in this thesis, were found to generate inaccurate predictions, but two models have been calibrated so as to provide safe estimates of the FRP shear capacity. Finally a new model for FRP shear strengthening was proposed for use in engineering. The new model was developed on the basis of an analysis of the contents of the database of experimental findings. The model incorporates several design equations adopted from various models and is set up for engineering use. The predictions of the shear force carried by the FRP strengthening material are found to be conservative. Godkänd; 2011; 20110328 (gabsas); DISPUTATION Ämnesområde: Konstruktionsteknik/Structural Engineering Opponent: Professor Giorgio Monti, University of Rome, Italy Ordförande: Professor Björn Täljsten, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Fredag den 29 april 2011, kl 13.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

The present study was conceived in order to investigate the shear behaviour of the Precast Reinforced Concrete Wall Panels (PRCWP) with cut-out openings subjected to in-plane seismic loading conditions and to assess the shear capacity gain obtained using Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites as retrofit solution. The structural system of Precast Reinforced Concrete Large Panels (PRCLP) was extensively used in Romania, from 1950 to 1990, for housing buildings with 5 and 9 stories. Cut-out openings are often required to facilitate direct access from outside or between adjacent apartments, predominantly at the ground floor, where both gravity and seismic capacity demand is maximum. However, cut-out openings performed in structural walls results in the modification of the internal force flow paths, loss of load bearing capacity and reduced structural safety. Similar experimental researches are scarce in the literature. The earthquake resisting behaviour of Reinforced Concrete (RC) structural walls with openings, strengthened by Carbon FRP (CFRP) sheets and grids, was investigated in the post-damage repair and strengthening case. The shear and flexural strengthening effect of differently oriented CFRP sheets was examined on cantilever type RC shear walls in both prior-to-damage and post-damage situations. Experimental research was performed on high slenderness RC walls with door openings distributed on four height levels, strengthened with CFRP sheets. Godkänd; 2009; 20091214 (gabsas)

Godkänd; 2009; 20090401 (gabsas)

The shear failure of Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) beams has not been studied to the same extent as the bending failure mechanism in the past decade. The complex nature of the shear failure mechanism just for reinforced concrete beams is still under debate among scientists and not solved yet. If we add the FRP strengthening to the already existing unknown issues, it is quite clear why attention was not focused on the shear failure of strengthened beam. In other words an extra uncertainty to the already existing ones is complicating more the problem of shear in concrete. It is of utmost importance to understand the shear failure mechanism of reinforced concrete beams and for this all the known theories for designing reinforced concrete beams subjected to shear are presented: truss analogy, theory of plasticity for concrete and modified compression field theory. The use of these theories in two of the most used standards is also exemplified. Further on, a design model for the shear strengthening of concrete beams by using fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP) is presented in Appendix I, and the limitations of the truss model analogy are highlighted. The fracture mechanics approach is used in analyzing the bond behaviour between the FRP composites and concrete. The fracture energy of concrete and the axial rigidity of the FRP are considered to be the most important parameters. The effective strain in the FRP when the debonding occurs is determined. The limitations of the anchorage length over the cross section are analyzed. A simple iterative design method for the shear debonding is finally proposed. Since the model's predictions are found satisfactory but not really precise, a deep literature review has been performed (Paper I). All the significant theoretical models for predicting the shear capacity of FRP strengthened RC beams developed during the years are analyzed, commented and compared with an extensive experimental database. The database contains the results from more than 200 tests performed in different research institutions across the world. The results of the comparison are not very promising and the use of the additional principle in the actual shear design equations should be questioned. The large scatter between the predicted values of different models and experimental results is of real concern bearing in mind that some of the models are used in present design codes. Further on, the influence of the FRP composites on the openings of shear (squat) walls is analyzed. In the same manner as for RC beams the current design methods existing in ACI (2005) and Eurocode (2004 a, b) are presented. Since the strengthening of shear walls was studied even less than FRP strengthened beams RC beam an up to date literature review of the experimental and theoretical work is presented. A concept, developed in collaboration with the Civil Engineering Department from "Politehnica" University of Timisoara, is presented for testing RC walls with openings subjected to lateral and gravitational loads (Appendix III). From a matrix of 50 different practical configurations of openings are selected 12 walls which are the subject of an ongoing experimental program. 8 walls with different opening configurations are subjected to cyclic lateral loading under constant gravitational load to simulate the seismic behaviour of FRP strengthened walls with openings. 4 walls with different opening configurations are tested to monotonic gravitational loading up to failure. Godkänd; 2008; 20081112 (ysko)

The performance of the most well-known models for the prediction of the contribution of FRP systems for the EBR shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams is compared in this paper. The comparison was made using experimental results collected in a large database consisting of approximately 200 FRP strengthened concrete beams with various strengthening configurations and geometric dimensions. The results are not promising and a large scatter between the considered models was obtained. In addition, none of these models predict the ultimate shear capacity very accurately, which is of serious concern considering that some of the models are used in various design codes.

A strengthening solution for multi-storey buildings in seismically active regions is considered. The Precast Reinforced Concrete Large Panel (PRCLP) structural system is described. Besides earthquakes, different problems during the last decades were identified in the PRCLP structural behaviour: design mistakes, neglected health monitoring, construction problems, change of use for example cut-out openings. The presented study is a part of an ongoing research program which deals with the influence of the Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) strengthening on the behaviour of Precast RC Wall Panels (PRCWP) with cut out openings subjected to cyclic (seismic) and normal (gravity) loading. In this paper a brief literature survey concerning RC walls strengthened by FRP is presented and the experimental tests setup is discussed. The wall specimens were designed according to the 1981 Romanian code. Tests are described and a discussion based on previous experimental work on shear walls is undertaken and future research is suggested. Godkänd; 2008; 20091216 (gabsas)