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Canine peripheral blood CD4+CD8α+ double-positive (dp) Tcells represent a small population of T lymphocytes that are not only derived from single-positive (sp) CD4+ but also from CD8+ Tcells. Dp Tcells can be subdivided in three different subpopulations according to their expression levels of CD4 and CD8α, i.e. the CD4dimCD8αbright, CD4brightCD8αbright, and the CD4brightCD8αdim subsets. Previously we could show that total canine peripheral CD4+CD8α+ dp Tcells have features of activated Tcells. Here we demonstrate that the individual dp Tcell subsets distinctly differ in their activation status and phenotype. Thus, among the dp Tcell subsets the CD4dimCD8αbright subpopulation has the lowest and the CD4brightCD8αbright subset the highest frequency of CD25+ cells pointing to the CD4brightCD8αbright subset with the highest activation status. Consistent with that, analysis of CD44 vs. CD62L expression demonstrates that the CD4brightCD8αbright subset contains the highest frequencies of effector-memory Tcells (TEM). Upon in vitro stimulation, the CD4brightCD8αbright and CD4dimCD8αbright dp Tcell subsets show the highest frequencies of IFN-γ producing cells. Expression of granzyme B was found exclusively in the CD4dimCD8αbright dp Tcell subset indicating cytotoxic potential of this dp Tcell subset. Furthermore, T-bet expression was restricted to the CD4dimCD8αbright subset, while Foxp3+ regulatory Tcells were detected in the CD4brightCD8αdim dp Tcell subset. In conclusion, canine dp Tcells are phenotypically and functionally heterogeneous consistent with the diverse characteristics of their single-positive CD4+ and CD8+ Tcell progenitors. The data provide the basis for future in vivo studies to elucidate the role of individual dp Tcell subsets in host defense and/or immune pathological diseases of dogs.

T lymphocytes co-expressing CD4 and CD8 ("double-positive T cells") are commonly associated with a thymic developmental stage of T cells. Their first description in humans and pigs as extrathymic T cells with a memory phenotype almost 30 years ago came as a surprise. Meanwhile peripheral double-positive T cells have been described in a growing number of different species. In this review we highlight novel data from our very recent studies on canine peripheral double-positive T cells which point to unique features of double-positive T cells in the dog. In contrast to porcine CD4(+)CD8(+) T cells forming a homogenous cellular population based on their expression of CD4 and CD8α, canine CD4(+)CD8(+) T cells can be divided into three different cellular subsets with distinct expression levels of CD4 and CD8α. Double-positive T cells expressing CD8β are present in humans and dogs but absent in swine. Moreover, canine CD4(+)CD8(+) T cells can not only develop from CD4(+) single-positive T cells but also from CD8(+) single-positive T cells. Together, this places canine CD4(+)CD8(+) T cells closer to their human than porcine counterparts since human double-positive T cells also appear to be heterogeneous in their CD4 and CD8α expression and have both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells as progenitor cells. However, CD4(+) single-positive T cells are the more potent progenitors for canine double-positive T cells, whereas CD8(+) single-positive T cells are more potent progenitors for human double-positive T cells. Canine double-positive T cells have an activated phenotype and may have as yet unrecognized roles in vivo in immunity to infection or in inflammatory diseases such as chronic infection, autoimmunity, allergy, or cancer.

OBJECTIVE To measure immunologic responses of snakes after experimentally induced infection with ferlaviruses. ANIMALS 42 adult corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) of both sexes. PROCEDURES Snakes were inoculated intratracheally with genogroup A (n = 12), B (12), or C (12) ferlavirus (infected groups) or cell-culture supernatant (6; control group) on day 0. Three snakes from each infected group were euthanized on days 4, 16, 28, and 49, and 3 snakes from the control group were euthanized on day 49. Blood samples were collected from live snakes on days −6 (baseline), 4, 16, 28, and 49. Hematologic tests were performed and humoral responses assessed via hemagglutination-inhibition assays and ELISAs. Following euthanasia, gross pathological and histologic evaluations and virus detection were performed. RESULTS Severity of clinical signs of and immunologic responses to ferlavirus infection differed among snake groups. Hematologic values, particularly WBC and monocyte counts, increased between days 4 and 16 after infection. A humoral response was identified between days 16 and 28. Serum IgM concentrations increased from baseline earlier than IgY concentrations, but the IgY relative increase was higher at the end of the study. The hemagglutination-inhibition assay revealed that the strongest reactions in all infected groups were against the strain with which they had been infected. Snakes infected with genogroup A ferlavirus had the strongest immune response, whereas those infected with genogroup B had the weakest responses. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results of this experimental study suggested that the ferlavirus strain with the highest virulence induced the weakest immune response in snakes.

The opportunistic fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans causes lung inflammation and fatal meningitis in immunocompromised patients. Regulatory T (Treg) cells play an important role in controlling immunity and homeostasis. However, their functional role during fungal infection is largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the role of Treg cells during experimental murine pulmonary C. neoformans infection. We show that the number of CD4(+) FoxP3(+) Treg cells in the lung increases significantly within the first 4 weeks after intranasal infection of BALB/c wild-type mice. To define the function of Treg cells we used DEREG mice allowing selective depletion of CD4(+) FoxP3(+) Treg cells by application of diphtheria toxin. In Treg cell-depleted mice, stronger pulmonary allergic inflammation with enhanced mucus production and pronounced eosinophilia, increased IgE production, and elevated fungal lung burden were found. This was accompanied by higher frequencies of GATA-3(+) T helper (Th) 2 cells with elevated capacity to produce interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13. In contrast, only a mild increase in the Th1-associated immune response unrelated to the fungal infection was observed. In conclusion, the data demonstrate that during fungal infection pulmonary Treg cells are induced and preferentially suppress Th2 cells thereby mediating enhanced fungal control.

Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes lung inflammation and meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised patients but is also able to asymptomatically infect immunocompetent individuals. C. neoformans is found ubiquitously especially in urban areas where it is spread by pigeons, and fungal exposure may predispose for asthma development already at an early age, as soon as confronted with pigeon droppings. In the study presented here, we investigated the presence of specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) against C. neoformans in sera from patients suffering from asthma in comparison to a healthy control cohort, accrued from the Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (LIFE). For serological analysis we developed a flow cytometry (FACS) based assay specific for an acapsular strain of C. neoformans to comprehensively analyze different cryptococcal serotypes. Compared with the non-asthmatic cohort, asthmatics exhibited, as expected, an elevated level of total serum immunoglobulin E (IgE), whereas the IgG seroreactivity against C. neoformans was not significantly different among the two groups (P = .118). Nevertheless, there was a trend toward increased Cryptococcus-specific IgG antibodies in the serum of asthmatics. Additionally, in male asthmatics an increased IgG-mediated seroreactivity compared to female asthmatics was found. This points to a higher prevalence of subclinical C. neoformans infection in male asthmatics and may support the hypothesis of C. neoformans as a risk factor for the development of asthma in urban areas.

For a long time the expression of the CD4 and CD8 receptor on peripheral blood T cells was thought to be mutually exclusive. However, in canine peripheral blood, similar to other species as swine or human for example, mature CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive (dp) T cells exist which simultaneously express both surface receptors and have features of activated T cells. Canine CD4(+)CD8(+)dp T cells are heterogeneous and can be divided into three subpopulations by their intensity of CD4 and CD8α expression: CD4(bright)CD8α(bright), CD4(dim)CD8α(bright) and CD4(dim)CD8α(dim). The number of CD4(+)CD8α(+)dp T cells increases after in vitro stimulation of canine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) raising the question of their progenitor(s). Thus, the aim of our study was to characterize the progenitor(s) of canine CD4(+)CD8α(+)dp T cells. By cell tracing experiments we identified both CD4(+) single-positive (sp) and also CD8α(+)sp T cells as progenitors of canine CD4(+)CD8α(+)dp T cells after in vitro stimulation. CD4(+)sp T cells almost exclusively upregulate a CD8αα homodimer, whereas CD8α(+)sp T cells can become CD4(+)CD8αβ(+) or CD4(+)CD8αα(+). Even in the absence of other cells, highly purified CD4(+)sp T cells can become double-positive upon in vitro stimulation, whereas highly purified CD8α(+)sp T cells fail to do so. However, CD8α(+)sp T cells can additionally express CD4 when stimulated in the presence of CD4(-)CD8α(-) double-negative (dn) cells or more efficiently when stimulated in the presence of CD4(+)sp T cells. Soluble factors secreted by CD4(+)sp T cells are sufficient for the upregulation of CD4 on CD8α(+)sp T cells, but direct cell-cell contact between CD4(+)sp and CD8α(+)sp T cells is more efficient. mRNA analysis shows that additional CD4 expression on CD8α(+)sp T cells results from de novo synthesis. Thus, uptake of soluble CD4 or trogocytosis is less likely as mechanism for generation of canine double-positive T cells. CD4(+)CD8α(+)dp T cells are highly activated independent of their origin except when generated in coculture of CD8α(+)sp T cells with CD4(-)CD8α(-)dn cells. Overall, in dog, CD4(+)sp T cells are the more potent progenitors of CD4(+)CD8α(+)dp T cells compared to CD8α(+)sp T cells.

Parapoxvirus ovis (PPVO) is known for its immunostimulatory capacities and has been successfully used to generate vector vaccines effective especially in non-permissive host species. Murine conventional and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (cDC and pDC) are able to recognize PPVO. The PPVO-sensing receptor on pDC is hitherto unknown. In this study we aimed to define the pattern recognition receptor responsible for the activation of murine pDC by inactivated and replication-competent PPVO. We show that PPVO-induced expression of type I and type III interferons, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and co-stimulatory CD86 by bone marrow-derived pDC but not cDC is blocked by chloroquine, an inhibitor of endosomal maturation. The activation of pDC is independent of viral replication and depends mainly on TLR9. Moreover, the use of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin or C-Jun-N-terminal kinase inhibitor SP600125 results in significant reduction of PPVO-induced pDC activation. Taken together, our data identify endosomal TLR9 as PPVO-sensing receptor in pDC.

Parapoxvirus ovis (PPVO) is a member of the Poxviridae family and belongs to the genus Parapoxvirus . It displays only limited homology with orthopoxviruses and has some molecular features such as an unusual high GC content distinct from orthopoxviruses. Inactivated PPVO (iPPVO) displays strong immunostimulatory capacities mediating antiviral activity in vivo. The role of dendritic cells (DC) and the pattern recognition receptors and signaling requirements responsible for immunostimulation by iPPVO are unknown. We demonstrate here that bone marrow-derived plasmacytoid DC (BM-pDC) and bone marrow-derived conventional DC (BM-cDC) secrete alpha/beta interferon (IFN-α/β) in response to iPPVO. Furthermore, iPPVO induces tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-12/23p40 (IL-12/23p40) release and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II), MHC-I, and CD86 upregulation by bone marrow-derived DC (BMDC). After engulfment, iPPVO is located in endosomal compartments and in the cytosol of BMDC. iPPVO elicits IFN-α/β by Toll-like receptor (TLR)-independent pathways in BM-cDC, since IFN-α/β release does not require myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) or TIR-domain containing adaptor protein inducing interferon (TRIF). In contrast, iPPVO-induced TNF-α release and enhanced expression of MHC-I and CD86 but not of MHC-II by BMDC chiefly requires MyD88 but not TLR2 or TLR4. Induction of IFN-α by iPPVO in BM-cDC occurred in the absence of IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) but required the presence of IRF7, whereas iPPVO-triggered IFN-β production required the presence of either IRF7 or IRF3. These results provide the first evidence that iPPVO mediates its immunostimulatory properties by TLR-independent and TLR-dependent pathways and demonstrate an important role of cDC for IFN-α/β production.