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This paper assesses the reliability and validity of cognitive and socioemotional skills measures and investigates the correlation between schooling, skills acquisition, and labor earnings. The primary data from Pakistan incorporates two innovations related to measurement and sampling. On measurement, the paper develops and implements a battery of instruments intended to capture cognitive and socioemotional skills among young adults. On sampling, the paper uses a panel that follows respondents from their original rural locations in 2003 to their residences in 2018, a period over which 38 percent of the respondents left their native villages. In terms of their validity and reliability, our skills measures compare favorably to previous measurement attempts in low- and middle-income countries. The following are documented in the data: (a) more years of schooling are correlated with higher cognitive and socioemotional skills; (b) labor earnings are correlated with cognitive and socioemotional skills as well as years of schooling; and (c) the earnings-skills correlations depend on respondents' migration status. The magnitudes of the correlations between schooling and skills on the one hand and earnings and skills on the other are consistent with a widespread concern that such skills are under-produced in the schooling system. [This report was prepared by the World Bank Group's Development Research Group, Development Economics. Funding was provided by RISE and World Bank's Strategic Research Program Fund.]

This study compares the differences in the mismatch between the education and occupations of immigrants in Canada and the United States, operationalized by over-education. It further explores how the cross-country differences may be related to the supply of and demand for university-educated immigrants and the way they are selected. Using comparable data and three measures of over-education, this study found that university-educated recent immigrants in Canada were much more likely to be overeducated than their U.S. peers. The over-education rate gap between recent immigrants and the native-born was much more pronounced in Canada than in the United States. In addition, while labour market demand was associated with a lower level of over-education in both countries, a greater supply of university-educated recent immigrants was positively associated with a likelihood of over-education among recent immigrants in Canada, but not in the United States. Furthermore, in Canada, the over-education rate was significantly lower among immigrants who were admitted through some form of employer selection (e.g., immigrants who worked in skilled jobs in Canada before immigration) than those who were admitted directly from abroad. Overall, this study provides insight into how the immigration system interacts with broader aspects of the labour market to shape the labour market outcomes of immigrants.

This paper studies the contribution of parental influence in accounting for cross-country gaps in human capital achievements. We argue that the cross-country variation in unobserved parental characteristics is at least as important as the one in commonly used observable proxies of parental socio-economic background. We infer this through an indirect empirical approach, based on the comparison of the school performance of second-generation immigrants. We document that, within the same host country or even the same school, students whose parents come from high-scoring countries in the PISA test do better than their peers with similar socioeconomic backgrounds. Differential selection into emigration does not explain this finding. The result is larger when parents have little education and have recently emigrated, suggesting the importance of country-specific cultural traits that parents progressively lose as they integrate in the new host country, rather than of an intergenerational transmission of education quality. Unobserved parental characteristics account for about 15% of the cross-country variance in test scores, roughly doubling the overall contribution of parental influence.

The Trump administration has no significant plan or strategy related to higher education. The only major policy declarations--to eliminate federal regulations on for-profit colleges and revisit federal guidelines on sexual assault on college campuses--both unravel policies developed under the Obama administration. Where the fate of higher education lies is in the innumerable initiatives bent on pleasing Trump's base and in the search for some sort of major legislative victory. As of this writing, this now includes a Republican coalition that wants to cut the funding for most federal agencies to ease the way for massive tax cuts. In the Trump administration's initial federal budget proposal presented last May, Trump planned huge reductions in federal programs, with two glaring exceptions: boosting military spending--including for veterans but also for hardware and more troops--and funding for a continent stretching border wall with Mexico. What about the funding future, and health and well-being, of America's great universities? To make financial room, and to placate some on the right, it is hard to imagine increased or even stable federal spending for research and financial aid. To partially offset tax cuts, spending must come down, at least in a rationale policy world. If this scenario plays out, higher education will be one of many casualties. Then again, confusion regarding the Trump agenda, discord among Republicans, lobbying by the many stakeholders of the current tax system, and even independent analysis of whatever convoluted plan emerges, could derail or significantly alter the tax-cut momentum. Or the thirst for a legislative tax-cut victory might simply temporarily blind Republican deficit hawks. In these scenarios, or a combination, federal funding for academic research and financial aid might only suffer minor cuts, or remain relatively stable--in the short run. For now, muddling through might not be good policymaking, but could be the best one can hope for. For American higher education in the volatile Trump era, disaster averted?

We document patterns and trends in school segregation in North Carolina between 1998 and 2016, a period of rapid immigration in this racially diverse state. As in other states of the South, the period of court orders enforcing racial balance has given way not only to tacit acceptance of residentially based school segregation but also to policies that offer parents alternatives to traditional public schools. Most prominent among these alternatives in North Carolina are charter schools, which have expanded rapidly with the state's blessing. Following the prevailing practice of social scientists, we measure segregation by the degree of imbalance across schools, using counties and metropolitan areas as basic geographical units. We differentiate students according to their racial/ethnic group and also to their family income. We take into account all students including those in private schools, charter schools and traditional public schools. For the state as a whole, we find that white/nonwhite segregation increased over the period. Most of the increase was in urban areas. We also find that low-income students became more segregated from other students. Segregation measured either way increased sharply in Charlotte-Mecklenburg, which significantly changed its student assignment policy following a federal court order. Compared to metropolitan areas in other parts of the U.S., urban areas in the state have modest levels of segregation, because most districts are county-wide and thus large and diverse. We decompose metropolitan segregation, separating the portions due to private schools, charter schools, racial disparities between school districts, and racial disparities within districts. Charter schools and within-district disparities accounted for the increase in average segregation in metropolitan areas over the period. More generally, areas where school segregation increased the most tend to be large, growing, and marked by big increases in the share of students who are Hispanic.

While destination-country education provides many potential advantages for immigrants, empirical studies in Australia, Canada and the United States have produced mixed results on the labour outcomes of immigrants who are former international students. This study uses large national longitudinal datasets to examine cross-cohort trends and within-cohort changes in earnings among three groups of young university graduates: immigrants who are former international students in Canada (Canadian-educated immigrants), foreign-educated immigrants who had a university degree before immigrating to Canada and the Canadian-born population. The results show that Canadian-educated immigrants on average had much lower earnings than the Canadian-born population but higher earnings than foreign-educated immigrants both in the short term and in the long term. However, Canadian-educated immigrants are a highly heterogeneous group, and the key factor differentiating their post-immigration earnings from the earnings of the Canadian-born population and foreign-educated immigrants is whether they held a well-paid job in Canada before becoming permanent residents.

This paper investigates the impact of immigration on the college enrollment of U.S. natives. Many studies have focused on the effect of increased demand for schooling by immigrants on the enrollment of natives. However, changes in immigrant labor supply may also affect native enrollment by changing local market prices. Using U.S. Census data from 1970 to 2000, I find that state-level increases in the number of immigrant college students do not significantly lower the enrollment rates of U.S. natives. On the contrary, state-level increases in the ratio of unskilled immigrant workers to skilled immigrant workers significantly raise native enrollment rates. These findings suggest that the demand for college is sensitive to wage rates and that college slots are flexibly supplied over a decadal time horizon. An appendix presents "Theory: A Model of Immigration and Native College Enrollment."

Despite educational gains in recent decades for many Latino students, there are still significant barriers to universal quality education in the U.S.; among these are the stresses of current U.S. immigration policy and political discourse, which serve as negative multipliers to pre-existing social, economic, and health inequities. This report captures the experiences of educators in UnidosUS K-12 programs across the U.S. to document the effects of immigration policy on UnidosUS-affiliated students' well-being and classroom climates.

Through a historical and comparative analysis of international education policy development in Canada and the U.S., this paper will map the similarities and differences in the two countries. It will highlight the contributions and challenges of the government's involvement in international education (IE) in the two federal states and in particular, explore the implications of the changing contexts, rationales and approaches for international education to the federal role in higher education. It will conclude with observations on the differential impact of the federal government's role in international/higher education on the higher education systems of the two countries and thus contribute to our understanding of how national specificities and characteristics outweigh the commonly stated policy rationales, approaches and outcomes for international education. [A bibliography is included.]

Indiscriminate enforcement and worksite raids, a revival of anti-immigrant activity at the state level, and the undermining of our legal immigration system are all putting nearly 6 million U.S. citizen children at risk of separation from their families. And many of these children are Latino. Beyond the "Border: Family Separation in the Trump Era" outlines the harm to children, families, and communities caused by these policies in the areas of education, health and mental health, public safety and economic opportunity. It is a plight that affects not just Latinos or immigrants. It's having an impact on our entire country's future and long-term vitality.

This paper focuses on children with a migration background and conceptualises their migration experience as adversity. The paper adapts the resilience framework to understand how immigrant children can overcome adversity. The paper discusses policy models that can be derived from adopting a resilience approach to the measurement of immigrant students' integration prospects and proposes a policy analysis framework. The "CHARM" framework helps to assess the extent to which destination country policies and practices support the educational and socioemotional well-being of immigrant children. Namely, it evaluates whether policies to consider (1) Cumulative adversity; adopt a (2) Holistic approach; consider (3) Adjustment as a dynamic process; identify a (4) Relational development; and implement a (5) Multilevel approach. The paper finally applies the CHARM framework to the education policies of Ontario, Canada and underscores the relevance of applying the CHARM framework across countries and jurisdictions to evaluate education policies that can promote the resilience of immigrant children.

While a number of single-country studies have been done to explore whether or not there is a "critical age" at which the arrival in a new country becomes a steep disadvantage to the immigrant student, this study aims to determine whether the steepness of the age-at-arrival/test score profile varies across origin or destination countries. As expected, the later the arrival, the greater the penalty. However results vary according to several factors, including language differences and whether the country of origin had higher or lower educational standards. Evidence shows the importance of helping young migrants with language difficulties, as well as with the subsequent adverse effects of these difficulties. (Contains 4 tables, 4 figures and 2 footnotes.)

As demographics shift and immigration is a hotly contested area of US civic life, the civic preparation and participation of Latin American immigrant youth is becoming increasingly important. The author examines the growing literature on this topic, inquiring into the political and demographic changes that have stimulated this area of inquiry, the challenges of studying this population, and what individuals currently know and what they still need to know about immigrant youth civic engagement and activism. At a time when the struggle for immigrant rights in the US is caught in the crossfire of severe recession and racism, young immigrant activists offer a ray of hope through their modest yet noteworthy successes. Scholarship on their civic engagement sheds light on ways that young people who live on the fault line between nation-states are creatively forging civic identities, claiming political voices, and making an impact. (Contains 144 footnotes.) [Funding for this paper was provided by the University of California All Campus Consortium on Research for Diversity (UC ACCORD), UC Berkeley's Center for Latino Policy Research, UC MEXUS, and the University of Illinois at Springfield.]

This essay is a reflection on several aspects related to my encounters with the concept of reform in mathematics education. I start with an exploration of the question of what is reform, grounded on my work with teachers in a project aimed at promoting reform. I focus on two aspects that seem to be present in most approaches to reform--group work and mathematical discussions--and in particular on implications related to equity and the participation of all students when implementing these practices. This takes me to my research in low-income, Latino communities and my efforts to bridge home/community mathematics and school mathematics. I address the notion of valorization of knowledge and the reactions to "difference," particularly in the context of immigration. I illustrate aspects of these reactions with data from parents, preservice teachers, and students. (Contains 7 footnotes.) [Paper presented at the ACCLAIM Research Symposium 3, Mathematics Education: Reform and Resistance in the Lifeworlds of Rural Schools and Communities, Cherry Valley Lodge, OH, May 18-20, 2006.]

Immigration pressures are increasing in most OECD countries. This paper investigates the consequences of immigration for natives' labour market outcomes, as well as issues linked to immigrants' integration in the host country labour market. Changes in the share of immigrants in the labour force may have a distributive impact on natives' wages, and a temporary impact on unemployment. However, labour market integration of immigrants (as well as integration of second-generation immigrants -- both in terms of educational attainments and of labour market outcomes) remains the main challenge facing host economies. In both cases, product and labour market policies have a significant role to play in easing the economy's adjustment to immigration. (Contains 53 footnotes, 8 figures, 2 boxes and 1 table.)

The Business Roundtable prepared this paper to: (1) help policymakers and the public better understand the facts about the United States' role in the worldwide economy; (2) offer context and perspective on employment trends; and (3) recommend a package of policies that will stimulate economic growth, foster innovation, create jobs and help workers develop skills for the jobs of today--and the jobs of tomorrow. Included among the Business Roundtable's recommendations for federal and state leaders are the following steps for improving education and training: (1) Identify how all of the public programs that now provide worker education, training and adjustment assistance can increase their flexibility, accessibility and effectiveness; (2) Modify existing trade adjustment assistance programs to include workers in services; (3) Launch a national initiative to design a new worker education, training and adjustment system for the 21st century; (4) Stay the course on implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act to improve reading and math achievement of the students who are tomorrow's workforce; (5) Move dedicated support for improving math and science education to the top of the list of federal education funding priorities; and (6) Design education and immigration policies to address the impact of demographic and higher education enrollment trends on the scientific and engineering workforce. (Contains 54 endnotes.)

The Decennial Census is the most important data collection activity undertaken by the U.S. federal statistical system. Because census data are used to apportion Congress and draw redistricting lines for thousands of state and local single-member districts to meet the one-person/one-vote guidelines, the census is at the heart of the political system. Also, census data are used to distribute more than $400 billion in federal funds each year, and they are widely used by other government statistical agencies to calculate rates or design surveys. Children are the age group most often missed in the Decennial Census--the reasons range from their living in hard-to-count neighborhoods to the fact that the census form only has space for complete demographic information on six household members. The fact that children are the age group missed most often in the Decennial Census comes as a surprise to many people, even those who have closely followed census issues. Despite the long-standing problem of children being missed in the Decennial Census, little has been done to examine this issue. Missed children might be referred to as the "overlooked undercount" because the undercount of children has been a persistent problem that has been given relatively little attention over time. The high undercount of children challenges the image that the undercount is made up mostly of young adults and people who dodge the census-takers for nefarious reasons. Unlike adults, who may bear some responsibility for making sure they are counted in the census, children are dependent on others to make sure they are included. Yet in 1980, 1990, and 2000, Census Bureau data show children, particularly young children, are one of the groups most likely to be missed in the census. This publication provides some background and information on the undercount of children, describes some theories about why children are missed in the census, and outlines a few ideas for reaching the parents of young children with a message about the importance of being counted in the census. (Contains 2 figures, 1 box, 10 tables and 37 endnotes.)

At the 18th meeting of Ministerial Council on Education (MCEETYA) (12th-13th May 2005), Council urged the Australian Government to: (1) increase per capita assistance to ESL-NA students with high educational needs, in particular, refugees and humanitarian entrants; (2) provide a new per capita allocation so that specific ethnic and cultural issues faced by those children and families entering into Australia under the refugee and humanitarian category can be addressed; and (3) expand the visa classifications eligible for new arrivals funding. Ministers Nelson and Hardgrave noted the points raised but indicated that a more evidence-based discussion of the issue was warranted to justify any Australian Government increase in funding. The MCEETYA Schools Resourcing Taskforce (SRT) convened a working party of Australian Government, Victorian Government and Catholic Education Commission representatives to work with the SRT secretariat to investigate this issue. A survey of the government state and territory education systems and Catholic education systems across Australia was conducted in March 2006. The survey was structured to collect data about the different modes of delivery of ESL tuition provided by an education system for its newly arrived students. Financial and non-financial data were collected in the survey. All states and territories participated except the Northern Territory. The Catholic Education Commission (CEC) provided data on two dioceses with substantial ESL-NA students. This report includes: (1) an overview of the existing policy settings for providing ESL tuition to newly arrived students, and of recent permanent and temporary immigration trends; (2) a national mapping of the services and different modes of delivery of ESL tuition provided by a system for its newly arrived students; and (3) an analysis of the current per capita costs of providing ESL tuition to newly arrived students and information on the adequacy of current provision for both groups of newly arrived students based on survey data. The Australian Government has expressed reservations about the methodology and conclusions drawn in this Discussion Paper. While these reservations remain, the critical importance of English language skills in improving workforce participation, productivity and aggregate economic outcomes for Australia, and to the well-being of individuals, is readily acknowledged. The Australian Government recognises the need to build on such common ground with further work to ensure areas of significant and specific ESL need are addressed. Appended are: (1) Visa Sub-Classes Eligible to Receive Commonwealth ESL-NA Program Funding; (2) Visa Sub-Classes Ineligible to Receive Commonwealth ESL-NA Program Funding; (3) SA Typical and Agreed Patterns of Entry and Exit Scales: DECS--ESL Scales; and (4) Survey Instrument. (Contains 19 tables, 9 figures and 63 footnotes.)

The delivery of an appropriate quantity and quality of health care in an efficient way requires, among other things, matching the supply with the demand for the services of physicians, over time. Such matching has led to very different levels of physicians per million population across OECD countries--because of variations, among other things, in: morbidity and mortality, health expenditure as a share of GDP and the design of health systems. In addition, there are signs that a higher density of physicians is found in countries which have left the supply of physicians mainly to the market whereas lower density is found in countries which have planned the intake to medical schools centrally over many years. Shortages of physicians have now appeared in a number of OECD countries. It seems likely that these shortages could worsen in some countries over the next two decades, as a result of rising demand for, and falling supply of, physicians, unless countermeasures are taken quickly. The countermeasures may involve recruiting into medicine a higher proportion of dwindling cohorts of young people which is likely, in turn, to require raising the relative pay of physicians and/or improving their conditions of service. Countries have at their disposal a variety of additional policy instruments to influence the supply of physicians including education and training policies, migration policies and policies affecting retention and retirement. A number of countries are now raising their intake to medical schools, or discussing raising it. Immigration of doctors can ease physician shortages in countries where numbers are lacking but it raises difficult questions about international equity when there are net, long-term flows of physicians from poorer countries with low average health status to richer countries with high health status. As a result, many OECD countries aim for self-sufficiency in physician supply. Against expectations of a wave of retirement of physicians in many OECD countries, several countries are trying to tempt physicians into delaying their retirement by making retirement arrangements more flexible and staying longer in practice more rewarding, financially. Most OECD countries experience inequities in the geographical distribution of their physician workforce. To tackle this difficulty, a mix of educational policies, regulatory policies and financial policies has been used with some success in a number of countries. Against increasing trends towards specialisation, some countries are trying to raise the relative attractiveness of careers in primary care. There is some evidence to suggest that giving students experience of primary care practice and appointing primary-care role models to academic positions, can influence students' choices towards a career in primary care. The services delivered by physicians depend on their productivity as well as on their numbers. There is good evidence that activity-related methods of payment will raise the activity rates of physicians, but this is also likely to raise costs and little is known about the effect that raised activity has on quality of care. There is growing interest in devising payment systems for physicians which reward the quality of care directly--where that is feasible. (Contains 12 footnotes, 13 figures, 6 boxes and 5 tables.)

Germany and Canada are at opposite ends of the debate over language integration and ascension to citizenship. German naturalization contains an explicit language criterion for naturalization. The first German immigration act will not only concentrate on control aspects but also focus on language as a criterion for legal immigration. Canada does not base entry or citizenship on knowledge of either of its official languages. Acquisition of a second language in Canada is voluntary and largely dependent on labor market incentives. This paper offers a comparative review of Canadian and German legal and educational programs. Nine sections focus on the following: "Canadian Immigration Policy: Post 1945"; "Canada's Citizenship Act and Language Requirements"; "Historical Development of Germany's Immigration Policy"; "Confirmation of German Citizenship"; "'Aussiedler' Language Tests"; "Canada's Market-Based Language Tests and Instruction"; "Canada's Language Benchmarks"; "German Language Training"; and "Evaluation of Second Language Acquisition in Canada and Germany." Five appendixes contain excerpts from the German and Canadian law and data on the language support program for ethnic Germans and foreigners in Germany, status 2000. (Contains 3 figures, 11 tables, and 64 references.) (SM)

This paper examines demographic and socioeconomic data on the Latino population, focusing on characteristics of Latino youth. The U.S. Hispanic population is growing rapidly, fueled by both immigration and high fertility rates. Although census figures indicate that about 64 percent of Hispanics are of Mexican origin, the Latino population is very diverse in terms of self-identified ethnicity. Younger age groups of Latinos are growing at a disproportionately faster rate than those of other racial groups. Today's Latino youth are the largest minority youth group in the United States and may make up the majority of the workforce when they reach middle age. Although Latinos do not comprise a single, monolithic community, issues that bring them together include maintenance of culture and the Spanish language, family values, immigrant rights, poverty, and work ethic. While Latino males have high labor force participation, their low wages and seasonal employment leave them in poverty. Their poverty is persistent and increasing, characterized by low levels of education and low participation in public assistance programs. Latino youth have disproportionately low rates of high school graduation and college attendance. Opponents of bilingual education, culturally relevant education, and affirmative action propose genetic or cultural deficits as the cause, ignoring links to inequitable school resources, low teacher expectations, and tracking systems. Needs for research on Latino youth are outlined. Eighteen data tables present demographic, poverty, employment, dropout, enrollment, and educational attainment data. (Contains 68 references and suggested readings.) (SV)

Anticipated demographic changes in the United States adult population in the decade between the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) of 1992 and the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), which is scheduled for 2002, were reviewed. Next, the implications of those changes for the NALS and NAAL were analyzed. The analysis focused on births, deaths, and international migration. Next, a demographic model of adult literacy proficiency was described that links changes in literacy proficiency to compositional and maturational changes in the adult population. Composition components were defined as changes over time in membership in the target population, whereas maturational components were defined as changes over time in the literacy proficiencies of given individuals who are in the target population at both time points. The model predicted increases over the decade in the mean literacy proficiency of both the foreign- and native-born adult populations and decreases in the percentages of each that are performing at the lowest level. (Eight implications of the model for the NAAL methodology were discussed, including implications related to the following issues: parallel population coverage in the NALS and NAAL assessments; adequate representation of minority and immigrant groups; and working with populations having limited English proficiency.) (MN)

As a supplement to an analysis of the devolution of policymaking for immigrants from the federal government to the states, this report provides a one-page summary of each state's immigrant eligibility rules for cash, food, and health assistance programs. It also notes state naturalization initiatives begun or expanded in the wake of welfare reform, and includes some background information on each state's immigrant population and economy. Unless otherwise noted, all data on immigrant eligibility and program rules were current as of summer/fall 1998. Each profile contains graphs of population by nativity and citizenship, and of noncitizen population by poverty level. (SLD)

This paper offers a conceptual "map" of issues and approaches in immigration research and illustrates features of the map with the significant contributions of Latino Studies to immigration research. One axis of the map concerns the time line of various waves of immigration. Although research on immigrants and immigration processes was a foundation of American sociology, Latino immigrants were largely ignored until the 1960s. In 1964, two Mexican social scientists published their research on illegal Mexican immigrants and on the "bracero" (migrant worker) program. Since then, Latino scholarship has contributed to the history of Spanish-speaking groups in the United States; the history of regions heavily impacted by Latino immigration; and the development of two major conceptual models of ethnic relations in America--acculturation and internal colonialism. The other axis of the map concerns levels of analysis: micro-level factors that drive individual behavior versus structural perspectives that emphasize major economic or political forces driving migration. The map's "Blue Highways" consist of research themes in Latino scholarship such as the heterogeneity of Latino immigrants, immigrants' involvement in small businesses, impact of migration on sending communities in the underdeveloped world, female labor migrants, and poverty among U.S. Latino immigrants. "Unpaved roads" or research needs are also suggested such as links between micro and macro levels of analysis, the "brain drain" from Third World to First World countries, and the distinctive issues of refugees and exiles. (Contains 69 references.) (SV)

This document considers the position, plight, and needs of recent Central American immigrants to Canada. It seeks to answer three questions: What kind of support do they need? What kind of programs can respond to their needs? How can they be helped to integrate into Canadian society? Several facts are uncovered, and conclusions are reached based on anecdotal information. Among the findings are these: Most of these immigrants come from rural areas in their own countries and have limited or no literacy in their native Spanish. They are often very unfamiliar with what basic appliances are in Canada (e.g., stoves). They encounter significant ethnic and racial-based hostility and prejudice from Canadian citizens. Many untrue and largely negative stereotypes about them are widely believed. Recommendations are made for effectively teaching these immigrants to survive and thrive in Canada. Immigrant success stories are chronicled in a number of vivid examples. It is concluded that the acquisition of literacy skills in Spanish is a necessary first step before acquiring similar literacy in English or French. Literacy is viewed as more than just reading and writing, but a necessary tool for problem solving in every-day life in a modern society. Other useful resources are provided. (KFT)

This working paper seeks to explore the reasons why educational attainment in the immigrant population varies between North America and Europe. Specifically, the examples of Canada and Switzerland are used as Canada has an immigrant population with a typically higher rate of post-secondary education than that of the domestic population, while in Switzerland the opposite is true. Analysis shows that while differences in immigration policy play a significant role, there are many other variables which affect educational attainment in immigrants, such as the education level of the parents, source region and home language. Tables are appended. (Contains 14 tables and 20 footnotes.)

This paper reviews Iceland's performance in skills accumulation against the backdrop of a rapidly changing economic environment and discusses directions for further improvements. Since the late 1990s, the government has considerably raised expenditure on education, which is now among the highest in the OECD relative to GDP. Nonetheless, Iceland continues to have one of the largest shares of those in the working age population who have not attained upper secondary or higher qualifications, and educational achievements of 15-year olds are not outstanding relative to the country's advanced state of economic development. This is all the more unsatisfactory because spending per student in the compulsory education sector exceeds the OECD mean considerably, even after controlling for differences in per capita GDP. Measures to improve outcomes include curriculum adjustments and an enhancement of teaching evaluation and quality. While ensuring that students acquire a satisfactory basic set of competencies, there is room for reducing the average duration of primary and secondary education, which is quite long by international comparison. In contrast to upper secondary attainment, that for the tertiary sector is above the OECD average, and higher education has to cope with an enormous rise in participation. With a view to maintaining quality in the face of these developments, the government has introduced legislation that is welcome. However, it does not address the issue of tuition fees, which are authorised in the private but not in the public sector. (A bibliography is included. Contains 6 figures, 1 box, and 9 tables.) [This paper is based largely on material from the OECD Economic Survey of Iceland published in August 2006 under the authority of the Economic and Development Review Committee (EDRC).]

This paper examines health workforce and migration policies in New Zealand, with a special focus on the international recruitment of doctors and nurses. The health workforce in New Zealand, as in all OECD countries, plays a central role in the health system. Nonetheless, maybe more than for any other OECD country, the health workforce in New Zealand cannot be considered without taking into account its international dimension. New Zealand has the highest proportion of migrant doctors among OECD countries, and one of the highest for nurses. There is no specific immigration policy for health professionals, although the permanent and temporary routes make it relatively easy for doctors and nurses who can get their qualification recognised to immigrate in New Zealand. At the same time, New Zealand also has high emigration rates of health workers, mainly to other OECD countries. International migration is thus at the same time an opportunity and a challenge for the management of the human resources for health (HRH) in New Zealand. Increasing international competition for highly skilled workers raises important issues such as sustainability and ability to compete in a global market. In this context, new approaches to improve the international recruitment of health workers, as well as developing alternative policies, may need to be considered. As for international recruitment, better coordination and stronger collaboration between main stakeholders could contribute to more effective and pertinent international recruitment. (A bibliography is included. Contains 23 footnotes, 18 charts, 1 map, 7 boxes, and 2 tables.) [Financial support for the project was provided by Australia, Canada, and the Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection of the European Commission.]

This report examines the question of which immigrants to the United States are more likely to be "Americanized" and absorbed into the American nation. The 1990 census found that about 40 percent of all foreign-born residents of the United States were naturalized citizens, while among those who arrived before 1980, about 60 percent were citizens. Factors influencing naturalization rates include country of origin and social and legal pressures in the sending countries that deter their nationals overseas from taking American citizenship. Using the 1990 census figures, this study examines the correlations between naturalization and a variety of socio-economic characteristics. The study is limited to those who are presumed to have been eligible for naturalization by 1990. Several general findings are reported with suggestions given as to the reasons for differences. The results point to immigration policy changes that may increase the likelihood of naturalization. Sections of the report include: (1) "Executive Summary"; (2) "Immigration and Adaptation"; (3) "Naturalization: What Is It?"; (4) "Sources of Data and Methodology"; (5) "Basic Naturalization Rates"; (6) "The Overall Demographic Picture"; (7) "The Overall Socio-Economic Picture"; (8) "Year of Entry: The Overall Picture"; (9) "Age at Entry into the United States"; (10) "The Overall Country Picture"; (11) "Educational Attainment"; (12) "Occupation"; (13) "Income and Poverty"; (14) "Household Type"; (15) "Language"; and (16) "Conclusion." (EH)