Search

Energy efficiency in historical buildings with a worth-preserving appearance can be improved with interior thermal insulation. However, interior thermal insulation may change significantly the hygrothermal performance of the building envelope and increases the risk of moisture problems in the assembly components. This paper studies the influence of different wall structures, types of exterior render and brick and vapor control strategies on the moisture performance of internally insulated walls with vapor-open insulation for different climatic conditions in Switzerland. The hygrothermal performance is simulated with a coupled heat and mass transport model and evaluated using a hygrothermal indicator, called the RHT Index. The numerical analysis indicates that the hygrothermal performance of interior insulated walls depends mainly on the moisture performance of the exterior finishing render. A capillary active render with larger liquid permeability leads to higher moisture contents in the building envelope. The influence of parameters such as masonry structure and brick type on envelope hygrothermal performance is rather small. For wall envelopes with less capillary active renders, the need to use a vapor barrier depends on the risk for water leakage and the vapor resistance of the render. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For historical buildings with a worth-preserving appearance, internal wall insulation can be the only possible solution to improve the building energy efficiency. However, the application of an internal insulation layer changes significantly the hygrothermal performance of the building envelope. For masonry walls, such intervention may lead to freeze-thaw damage of the brickwork. In this study, a hygrothermal model is developed. The model takes into account moisture and heat transport in porous medium and tracks the occurrence of freezing and thawing in function of pore size distribution and as well as the ice content. Freezing and melting of water in porous medium is implemented based on the theory of freezing point depression, as freezing temperature of water in porous medium depends on pore size, i.e. water in the smaller pores freezes at temperatures lower than 0 °C. The numerical model results are compared with a porous medium freezing experiment and good agreement is found. Traditional hygrothermal assessment uses the number of zero crossings on a Celsius scale as the number of freeze-thaw cycles. We propose a method that uses the number of actual ice growth and melt cycles as an indicator more accurately accounting for the freeze-thaw process. In addition, we develop an index, called FTDR Index, to assess freeze-thaw damage risk. We perform simulations of uninsulated and internally retrofitted masonry walls using two Swiss climatic conditions. The study clearly shows increase of freeze-thaw cycles and ice content after internal retrofitting in both climates. Thus, FTDR Index increases after internal retrofitting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hygrothermal models allow designers to evaluate the hygrothermal performance of building envelopes. However, hygrothermal modeling needs the input of the external climate loading, a moisture reference year, to evaluate moisture damage risk of building envelope. In this paper, a new procedure is proposed for selecting moisture reference years. A metric, called Climatic Index, combining wind-driven rain load and potential evaporation is developed in this study. Climatic Indices over 30 years are determined for a wall envelope located in Zurich, Switzerland. The hygrothermal performance of the wall envelope and its moisture damage risk are simulated and evaluated using a hygrothermal risk indicator, called the RHT Index. A clear correlation between Climatic Index and RHT Index is found for the specific moisture damage considered, mold growth. The selection procedure combines a first selection of three years around the 10 % level criterion based on the Climatic Index, followed by a careful comparison of different years based on RHT Index and a final selection of the year with the largest RHT Index as moisture reference year. The combination of Climatic Index and RHT Index allows for the selection of moisture reference years with known level of damage risk. Ein neues Verfahren zur Auswahl von Feuchte-Referenzjahren für hygrothermische Simulationen. Hygrothermische Modelle ermöglichen es Planern, die hygrothermischen Eigenschaften der Gebäudehülle zu bewerten. Zur Bewertung des Risikos von Feuchteschäden sind für die hygrothermische Modellierung Daten zur äußeren klimatischen Belastung erforderlich, und zwar in Form eines Feuchte-Referenzjahres. Der vorliegende Beitrag schlägt ein neues Verfahren zur Auswahl von Feuchte-Referenzjahren vor. In der Studie wird eine Maßzahl namens 'Klimatischer Index' entwickelt, die windbasierte Regenlast und potenzielle Verdunstung kombiniert. Klimatische Indexwerte für 30 Jahre werden für eine Außenwand in Zürich (Schweiz) bestimmt. Das hygrothermische Verhalten der Außenwand sowie ihr Risiko von Feuchteschäden werden simuliert und bewertet anhand eines hygrothermischen Risikoindikators, genannt RHT-Index. Für die hier speziell betrachtete Art von Feuchteschäden, den Schimmelbefall, wird ein eindeutiger Zusammenhang zwischen Klimatischem Index und RHT-Index ermittelt. Das Verfahren umfasst eine erste Auswahl von drei Jahren basierend auf einem 10%-Kriterium und dem Klimatischen Index, dem dann ein sorgfältiger Vergleich verschiedener Jahre auf Grundlage des RHT-Index folgt und schließlich die Auswahl jenes Jahres mit dem höchsten RHT-Index als Feuchte-Referenzjahr. Die Kombination von Klimatischem Index und RHT-Index ermöglicht die Auswahl von Feuchte-Referenzjahren mit bekanntem Schadensrisiko. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hygrothermal models allow designers to evaluate the hygrothermal performance of building envelopes. A key question in hygrothermal modeling however remains in the proper selection of representative exterior moisture conditions, i.e. a moisture reference year. A Climatic Index combining wind-driven rain load and potential evaporation is developed allowing considering the effect of climatic variability on the performance of the building envelope. The proposed Climatic Index combines thus both the wetting load and evaporation potential. This index is suitable for the evaluation of the level of moisture damage risk of wall assemblies where typical moisture problems are mainly caused by rainwater uptake or ingress. The Climatic Index is determined for four cities in Switzerland. The hygrothermal performance of the assemblies is simulated and evaluated using a hygrothermal indicator, called the RHT Index. A clear correlation between Climatic Index and RHT Index is found. However, the moisture reference year selected based solely on a 10% level criterion of the Climatic Index may not correspond to the year with the most significant moisture damage risk. Therefore, a new procedure is proposed which combines a first selection of three years around the 10% level criterion, followed by a careful comparison of these years based on hygrothermal simulations and selection of the year with the largest RHT Index as moisture reference year. The combination of Climatic Index and RHT Index from hygrothermal simulations allows for the selection of moisture reference years that are around the 10% level, but excluding the ambiguity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Moisture storage and transport properties of southern pine (Pinus spp.) wood were measured for implementation into hygrothermal models. Specimens were untreated or pressure-treated with alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ) preservative. Moisture storage was characterized with sorption isotherms in the hygroscopic region (high capillary pressures) and documented with mercury intrusion porosimetry in the overhygroscopic region (low capillary pressures). The data were then combined into a single moisture retention curve as a function of capillary pressure. Moisture transport was evaluated from steady-state water vapor transmission and dynamic capillary water absorption experiments. These data were used to calculate the moisture permeability over the entire range of capillary pressures using the diffusivity approach of Carmelietet al. Moisture storage and transport properties were similar for the untreated and ACQ-treated southern pine, except for the permeability of the treated wood which was lower in the radial direction. The data presented here can be used to improve the accuracy of hygrothermal and combined hygrothermal–corrosion modeling simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The correct prediction of the behavior of wood components undergoing environmental loading or industrial process requires that the hygric, thermal and mechanical (HTM) behavior of wood are considered in a coupled manner. A fully coupled poromechanical approach has been used to perform a parametric study on wood HTM behavior, and the results have been validated with neutron imaging measurements on a moist wood specimen exposed to high temperature. Further, HTM behavior of wood during welding has been simulated by the model. For such a simulation, proper material properties are needed, as some of them, for example thermal conductivity, have a significant influence on the local and temporal behavior of the material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The correct prediction of the behavior of wood components undergoing environmental loading or industrial process requires that the hygrothermal and mechanical (HTM) behavior of wood is considered in a coupled manner. A fully coupled poromechanical approach is proposed and validated with neutron imaging measurements of moist wood specimens exposed to high temperature. This paper demonstrates that a coupled HTM approach adequately captures the variations of temperature, moisture content, and dimensions that result in a moist wood sample exposed to one-side heating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vapor sorption in hygroscopic porous materials is accompanied by latent heat release/storage, which can influence indoor thermal comfort and building heating and cooling energy consumption. There is a need to better understand the coupled vapor and heat transport during adsorption and desorption. In this study, longitudinal spruce samples are exposed to adsorption and desorption experiments. Neutron radiography provides accurate measurement of moisture content variations spatially and temporally. Wireless thermocouples provide accurate measurements of temperature at different locations. Large changes in moisture content and temperature are observed during both adsorption and desorption experiments. Both moisture content and temperature variations seen in experiments are well simulated with hygrothermal modeling. The latent heat associated with vapor sorption is found to be the source of the large variations in temperature. It is found that vapor permeability influences both vapor and thermal transport while thermal conductivity influences only thermal transport. The vapor transfer coefficient has a small influence on vapor transport while the convective heat transfer coefficient has an influence on heat transport. The validated hygrothermal model is further used to simulate the coupled vapor and heat transport occurring in moisture buffering tests. It is found that moisture buffering values are different by up to 14% depending on the presence or absence of thermal insulation around the samples. For more hygroscopic materials, the difference can be even much larger. It is recommended not only to seal and but also to insulate samples for moisture buffering tests. • Both temporal and spatial change of moisture and temperature in samples are measured. • Vapor permeability influences both vapor and thermal transport. • Thermal conductivity influences only thermal transport. • It is necessary to seal samples for moisture buffering value tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A combined heat, moisture, and corrosion model is presented and used to simulate the corrosion of metal fasteners embedded in solid wood exposed to the exterior environment. First, the moisture content and temperature at the wood/fastener interface is determined at each time step. Then, the amount of corrosion is determined spatially using an empirical corrosion rate model and the inputs of the first step. The result is a corrosion profile along the length of the fastener generated by summing the corrosion depths determined at each time step. We apply the combined model to predict the annual corrosion depth along a metal fastener in wood decks situated in nine different US cities. Corrosion profiles are found to exhibit the same general shape independently of climatic load, with the largest amount of corrosion occurring at 1–5 mm from the wood surface with corrosion depths ranging from 5 μm in Phoenix, Arizona to 45 μm in Hilo, Hawaii. Corrosion is confined to the first 7–20 mm of the fastener below the wood surface. By varying the climatic loads, we find that although there is a definite relation between total annual rain and total annual corrosion, under the same rain loads corrosion is higher for a climate with more evenly distributed rain events. The proposed combined model is able to capture corrosion behavior under varying loading. A sensitivity analysis gives guidelines for future corrosion modeling work for fasteners in wood. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A computer model was extended and adapted to simulate the hygrothermal behavior of building envelope-wood components. The model was used to predict moisture movement in wood planks forming the decks of nonvented flat roofs insulated with cellulose. The gradient of water potential was considered as the driving force for moisture movement in wood. The model required the determination of convective heat- and mass-transfer coefficients, the sorption curves, the effective water conductivity for different wood species, and the hygrothermal conditions within the assembly to characterize the mass-conservation equation. Once these parameters were integrated in the computer model, this approach was then validated by carrying a simulation of the drying process of wood planks using experimental data from a large-scale test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our starting hypothesis is that Polyethylene glycol (PEG) can be utilized to mix with the biopolymers for consolidating fiber-reinforced composites without deteriorating their hygro-mechanical properties. The effect of PEG on the shear strength during pull-out of crystalline cellulose (CC) fiber out of an amorphous cellulose matrix is simulated with molecular dynamics. The interfacial shear stress shows a stick-slip behavior and is weakened with increasing moisture content. Shear strength increases at low moisture content, manifesting a slight strengthening of interfacial mechanical property due to cohesive forces exerted by the water molecules. At higher moisture content, shear strength is reduced due to breakage of the hydrogen bonds between CC and matrix by water molecules. When adding PEG, amorphous cellulose around the crystalline fiber is replaced by PEG, forming a mixture with amorphous cellulose. It is found that PEG-treated CC-AC composite maintains its shear strength and the presence of PEG does not deteriorate the dependence of the shear strength on moisture content. A shear strength model based on the number of hydrogen bonds between the fiber and the matrix is developed, which validates our initial hypothesis by unraveling the fundamental mechanisms at play. The model reveals that, although the shear strength per hydrogen bond between the fiber and PEG is lower than the shear strength per hydrogen bond between the fiber and amorphous cellulose, the final shear strength is partly compensated by an increase in the total number of hydrogen bonds with increasing PEG ratio. Since PEG reduces the moisture content in the composite at low relative humidity, PEG treated wood in museum conditions will show enhanced shear strength. The framework is a basis for further investigation of realistic archaeological wood with PEG-treatment. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the accuracy of a recently developed hygrothermal-corrosion model which predicts the corrosion of fasteners embedded in wood by comparing the results of the model to a one year field test. Steel and galvanized steel fasteners were embedded into untreated and preservative treated wood and exposed outdoors while weather data were collected. Qualitatively, the distribution of corrosion products along the length of the fastener were in agreement with the simulation results. Quantitatively, the combined hygrothermal-corrosion model predicted 20% less corrosion than measured in the exposure test for galvanized steel fasteners due to a lower simulated moisture content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]