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Wildlife disease outbreaks can lead to population declines, which are usually attributed to increased direct or indirect mortality. Alternatively, behavior associated with sickness can lead to social isolation, potentially decreasing fitness of affected individuals. A useful case study to examine this dynamic is chronic wasting disease (CWD), a neurological disease of cervids, known to affect behavior and movement. In this study, we monitored scraping, a White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus ; WTD) breeding season behavior, in an area of high CWD prevalence to determine if this reproductive behavior is affected by CWD. At 107 scrape sites, we detected 3,063 scrape interactions and 218 unique bucks. Bucks engaged with scrapes most often, performing 73% of interactions—compared to 23% by does, and 4% by fawns. Twenty-one bucks captured on camera traps at scrape sites were harvested through recreational hunting, 13 testing CWD-positive and 8 CWD not-detected. We found no significant effect of CWD status on specific scraping behaviors. There may, however, have been population-level effects, with shifts toward greater proportions of scraping by yearling bucks and during daylight hours compared to findings from past studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Grand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa manages for sustainable subsistence harvests of moose (mooz; Alces alces) and white‐tailed deer (waawaashkeshi; Odocoileus virginianus). Moose populations in northern Minnesota, USA, are declining, which may necessitate alterations to Indigenous subsistence practices. Moose and deer exhibit seasonal behaviors such as altered space use and movement strategies, to which gray wolves (ma'iingan; Canis lupus) and humans may adapt, resulting in seasonal mortality patterns. Identifying periods of increased moose and deer vulnerability is important for achieving tribal conservation objectives. We assessed seasonal cause‐specific mortality of adult moose (2010–2021) and deer (2016–2022) fitted with global positioning system collars on and near the Grand Portage Indian Reservation (Gichi Onigaming; GPIR) in Minnesota and hypothesized mortality risk would be influenced by species‐specific space use patterns and weather. We estimated survival rates and mortality risk using time‐to‐event models. We recorded 42 moose mortalities (17 health issues, 8 predations, 4 subsistence harvests, 13 unknown causes) and 49 deer mortalities (26 predations, 13 harvests, 4 other causes, 6 unknown causes). Mean annual moose survival was 83.2%, and mortality risk peaked during late winter (~25 April) and fall (~8 October). Mean annual deer survival was 48.0%, and mortality risk peaked during late winter (~25 March) and during their fall migration period (~11 November). Mortality timing coincided with transitions between space use states (i.e., periods of spatial stability), suggesting ungulates are at greater risk during these transitional periods, though movement strategy (i.e., resident vs. migratory) did not influence mortality risk. Further, increased winter severity corresponded with increased deer mortality. We observed similar temporal peaks in mortality risk when harvest mortalities were censored, suggesting our observed seasonal mortality peaks occur naturally despite harvest comprising most fall deer mortality. Our results can inform population models and harvest regulations by identifying periods of mortality risk on GPIR under Anishinaabe principles of seventh‐generation conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Hunting can have direct effects (i.e., mortality) and indirect effects (i.e., behavior changes, such as shifting away from foraging areas to circumvent risk from hunters) on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Deer populations within the Chattahoochee National Forest of northern Georgia, USA, have declined significantly since the 1980s. Since deer population sustainability is a concern, understanding the potential negative effects of hunting on female deer is important. During the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 hunting seasons, we evaluated the indirect effects of 7 firearms hunts for male deer on 20 non-target female deer. We used GPS locations recorded every 30 min during pre-hunt, hunt, and post-hunt periods to calculate and compare movement rates during the day and night, as well as the size and landscape characteristics of the space the deer utilized. Our results suggest that the low level of hunting pressure in our study area led to no biologically significant changes in female deer movements. To the extent of the findings presented in this paper, adjustments to the management of hunting in our study area do not appear to be necessary to minimize hunting-related disturbances for female deer. However, managers should continue to consider female deer behavior when evaluating future changes to hunting regulations. Perceived risk associated with hunters can cause white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to shift their activity away from key foraging areas or alter normal movements, which are important considerations in managing hunting and its effects on a population. We studied the effects of seven firearms hunts on the movements of 20 female deer in two Wildlife Management Areas within the Chattahoochee National Forest of northern Georgia, USA, during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 hunting seasons. Deer populations and the number of hunters in our study area have declined significantly since the 1980s. In response, hunting regulations for the 2019–2020 hunting season eliminated opportunities for harvesting female deer. To evaluate the indirect effects of antlered deer hunting on non-target female deer, we calculated 90% utilization distributions (UDs), 50% UDs, and step lengths for pre-hunt, hunt, and post-hunt periods using the dynamic Brownian bridge movement model. Data included 30 min GPS locations for 44 deer-hunt combinations. Pre-hunt 50% UDs ( x −   = 7.0 ha, SE = 0.4 ha) were slightly greater than both hunt ( x −   = 6.0 ha, SE = 0.3 ha) and post-hunt ( x − = 6.0 ha, SE = 0.2 ha) 50% UDs (F = 3.84, p = 0.03). We did not detect differences in step length, nor did we detect differences in size or composition of 90% UDs, among the periods. Overall, our results suggest that the low level of hunting pressure in our study area and lack of exposure to hunters led to no biologically significant changes in female deer movements. To the extent of the findings presented in this paper, adjustments to the management of hunting in our study area do not appear to be necessary to minimize hunting-related disturbances for female deer. However, managers should continue to consider female deer behavior when evaluating future changes to hunting regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To describe the characteristics of the number of hectares (located in the UMAs registered in the state of Chihuahua) used for the white-tailed deer free-range production, the level of exploitation of the species, and its economic value. Design/Methodology/Approach: This study determined the number of Units for the Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Use of Wildlife (UMAs) registered in the state of Chihuahua, where white tailed deer had been exploited since 2015. Forty-three municipalities in the state of Chihuahua, with a total of 159 UMAs, were analyzed. Twenty-three randomly selected UMAs were characterized, taking into account the hectares and the presence of white-tailed deer per municipality. Finally, the exploitation value of the species use per community was established in order to determine its exploitation and economic value. Results: The total area used for the exploitation of the white-tailed deer reaches 1,067,380 hectares. Thirtytwo municipalities had potential for the exploitation of white-tailed deer. Thirty-three deer were hunted per season in the 23 UMAs under study, which accounts for a $990,000 Mexican pesos gross income for the state of Chihuahua per season; this exploitation generates a total of 115 temporary jobs for the communities surrounding the 23 UMAs studied. Chihuahua's UMAs welcome a total of 33 white-tailed deer hunters per season. Hunters pay $30,000 to $34,000 Mexican pesos for each white-tailed deer specimen. Study Limitations/Implications: The study provides an overview of the current state of the UMAs in the state of Chihuahua that have a permit for the white-tailed deer hunting exploitation. Each of the UMAs under study has specific characteristics, including: the services offered, the associated hunting species, and the exploitation populations under an integrated sustainability arrangement. This study does not include the benefits of exploiting associated species, such as the collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) and the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Findings/Conclusions: Based on the number of registered UMAs, 32 out of 40 municipalities use 100% of their registered area for the exploitation of white-tailed deer. The white-tailed deer hunting exploitation increases the profitability and productivity of livestock ranches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Predation risk, whether from large carnivores or humans, is a primary driver of movement and habitat selection for ungulates. Throughout much of the geographical range of white-tailed deer, predation risk during autumn and winter is driven by hunters; however, information about how deer respond to hunting pressure during a long hunting season is lacking. Aims. We aimed to determine how differences in daily temporal exposure to hunting risk affected habitat selection of adult male white-tailed deer. Methods. We deployed GPS collars on 42 adult male white-tailed deer during the 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 firearm hunting seasons in Mississippi, USA. GPS collars provided fine-scale spatial and temporal information regarding habitat use of our study area. Key results. We showed a mismatch between what hunters and deer selected; landscape characteristics selected most by hunters were least selected by deer during the day, which we believe has never been documented. Fine-scale temporal analysis showed that deer selected for some areas (food plots) as much as five times more often during the night, when no hunting risk was present, than during the day, when risk was present. Conclusions. Habitat selection by deer varies depending on the amount of risk that is present. Even in a high-risk heavily hunted area, adult male white-tailed deer can recognise external cues on the landscape, and shift habitat selection both spatially and temporally to favour areas that present less risk. Implications. This study, to our knowledge, provides the first evidence that white-tailed deer actively selected for habitat characteristics that hunters were not utilising. To minimise the effectiveness ofrisk-avoidance behaviours used by deer, we suggest hunters moderate temporal hunting effort across time to decrease the risk to which deer are exposed, thereby minimising the response by deer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Trinidadian red-brocket deer (Mazama americana trinitatis) is the only species of deer in Trinidad and is classified as a unique subspecies of red-brocket deer. Despite the importance of the species in Trinidad, to date there have been no published studies on their densities. We report on the densities of this species at four different sites in Trinidad over a 3-year period, with the first 2 years sampled during a hunting moratorium. Diurnal surveys were conducted, with density estimates calculated using King's Estimator. Surveys were repeated in both the dry and rainy seasons. A total of 312 deer on 1131.4 km of transect were observed over the study. Density estimates varied between different sites (1–16 individuals/km2), and between one and eight individuals/km2 island-wide. Overall, the estimated density of red-brocket deer increased in two of four sites during the study period, indicating that the institution of the moratorium may have had a positive impact on populations of deer. The fact that density estimates varied considerably across the island suggests that harvest levels may need to be tailored for different sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of the zooarchaeological research on early agricultural societies in North China focuses on long-term processes of animal domestication. The conventional idea of a simple transition from foraging wild species to farming domesticated ones has obscured ecological relationships that lie somewhere between the two. We argue that early farming strategies in North China may have resembled those of agricultural societies in North America where farmers managed landscapes to create deer habitat, which increased deer populations and facilitated hunting. Deer were one of the main sources of food, antlers, and hides for people in China for thousands of years. Shifting agriculture combined with deer hunting was a less intensive use of the landscape than the intensive agriculture that gradually replaced it. As domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats became more common in East Asia beginning around 5000 years ago, people had less need for the meat, bone, and antlers of deer. By the time Chinese historical texts were written, deer were largely confined to royal hunting parks in the densely populated agricultural centers of North China. A similar dynamic later played out in other regions of China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baited camera surveys are often used to study white‐tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus populations and inform harvest decisions. Surveys are commonly conducted in late summer or early fall when deer populations are expected to be segregated sexually, whereas hunting seasons typically occur during the breeding season when sexes are likely to be mixed. However, the effects of socio‐sexual shifts in space use on pre‐season camera surveys has not been evaluated. We conducted a baited survey before the hunting season followed by passive camera surveys during the hunting season on three properties in southwestern Georgia, USA. We collected 51 106 images of deer before and during the hunting season from baited and passive cameras. Based on interpolated maps of camera detections, the populations were highly segregated during the September baited surveys. In contrast, subsequent passive camera surveys indicated high overlap of males and females during the breeding months, with males shifting their distribution towards females. Because most management units on private lands are substantially smaller than our camera arrays (typically < 1000 ha), our results suggest that pre‐season surveys may not accurately reflect the population available for harvest during the hunting season. Establishment of cooperative management programs among adjacent landholdings may improve management effectiveness. In addition, managers should anticipate shifts in male distributions during the breeding months and real‐time analytical approaches could be developed with the use of cellular‐based cameras to rapidly alter harvest objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife managers are implementing programs to reduce abundant populations of large herbivores, such as white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in eastern North America, with renewed research interest in understanding these programs' ecological effects. To examine plant community change following culling of white‐tailed deer in oak (Quercus spp.) forests in Ohio, USA, we measured browse severity on tree seedlings and cover of 43 deer‐sensitive, native indicator plant species across 20 years spanning pre‐ (2002–2015) and post‐ (2016–2021) deer culling periods. After culling halved deer abundance from 16.7 deer/km2 to 8.6 deer/km2, browse patterns on tree seedlings reversed from most seedlings exhibiting browse damage to most being undamaged. Cover of deer‐sensitive indicator plants increased 7‐fold in the 6 years after deer culling. Five of 6 indicator plant groups (e.g., Liliaceae) and 32 of 43 indicator species (74%) increased in cover after deer culling. Rhizomatous, clonally reproducing and early flowering (May–Jun) species were generally most responsive. The rapid increase in deer‐sensitive plants after deer culling in our study is among the fastest and largest reported among eastern North American studies. The plant community resilience observed in this study could partly relate to the relatively short duration (~10 yr) that deer populations were elevated before culling began, allowing persistence of local plant regeneration potential. Deer culling enabled a moderate deer population to coexist with a rising sensitive plant population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and hunters on 2 Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) within the Chattahoochee National Forest of northern Georgia, USA, significantly declined in number from the 1980s to 2018. Managers were interested in understanding how they could manipulate hunter distribution according to deer management goals. To understand the spatial distribution of hunting pressure and factors driving hunter resource selection, we analyzed GPS tracking data from 58 deer hunters over the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 hunting seasons. We evaluated hunter selection on 3 spatial scales relative to elevation, slope, and distance from roads, trails, wildlife openings, deciduous forest, mixed forest, and evergreen forest. We incorporated covariates into 6 binary logistic regression models, plus a null model, within a used versus available framework. First, we compared hunter locations to available locations generated within the 2 WMAs. Elevation and distance to deciduous forest had the greatest effect on hunter selection, where hunters selected for lower elevations and closer proximity to deciduous forest. Second, we compared individual hunting bout locations to available locations generated within a buffer around the hunter's starting location with a buffer radius equal to the maximum distance they travelled from their starting location. At the bout scale, distance to wildlife openings and elevation were the most important drivers of hunter selection; hunters selected areas closer to wildlife openings and higher elevations. Third, we compared individual hunter stand locations (used) to randomly selected locations along the hunter's travel path (available). Only distance to roads and deciduous forest were significant in explaining hunter selection of stands. Hunters chose locations farther from roads and closer to deciduous forest relative to their travel paths. Mapping our WMA‐scale results revealed that only 5% of the total WMA area contained a greater relative probability of hunter selection compared to the probability of non‐selection. Our results suggest that vast refuge areas for deer likely existed on the WMAs during our study period. Manipulating hunter distribution is not necessary to aid in sustaining deer on either WMA at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resource selection in sexually dimorphic ungulates is at least partially explained by sex‐specific resource requirements and risk aversion strategies. Females generally spend more time in areas with less risk and abundant, high‐quality forage due to their smaller body size. However, demographically variable responses to risk are context dependent, and few have concurrently quantified male and female behavior within areas with the same resource base. We captured 111 (54 males, 57 females) adult white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from 2009 to 2018 on a site in South Carolina, USA, where hunters were the primary source of adult mortality. We fit each deer with a GPS collar programmed to collect locations at 30‐min intervals. Upon collar recovery, we analyzed the data to estimate sex‐ and time‐specific selection for, and distance to, various cover types. While both sexes generally avoided risky areas (i.e., sites hunted more frequently) during the day, females (p =.41) were more likely than males (p =.16) to use risky areas containing abundant food resources during the day, where p = probability of selection. Our findings indicate that female white‐tailed deer may be forced to utilize high risk areas during high risk periods due to their smaller body size and increased nutritional demands, whereas larger males are better able to forgo foraging opportunities during risky periods to mitigate risk; however, our study design left room for the possibility that our observations were driven by innate sex‐specific patterns in white‐tailed deer. Nonetheless, our study contributes information to the literature by describing sex‐specific resource selection by diel period on a site where sexes shared the same resources and were presented with the same landscape of risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long‐term coexistence of sympatric species is dependent on segregation in at least one of three niche dimensions: space, time or feeding habits. Hunting by people can influence species' temporal and spatial patterns and consequently affect their coexistence. We tested the hypothesis that hunting influences spatial and temporal patterns of coexistence of two sympatric deer species (Mazama americana and Mazama nemorivaga) in central Amazonia. We described deer hunting patterns using data from an 18‐year community‐based hunting monitoring program and predicted the spatial distribution of deer hunting trips. We used camera traps to (1) estimate the habitat use patterns of each species through conditional occupancy, (2) evaluate whether these species interact and (3) assess how modelled hunting intensity affects deer habitat occupancy. We also tested the temporal overlap of activity time between both species and hunters. We did not find evidence of hunting effects on occupancy and interaction, nor of spatial segregation among the deer species. M. americana was primarily nocturnal and M. nemorivaga primarily diurnal. The overlap between species' temporal activities was relatively low, suggesting temporal niche segregation between species. Hunting activity was mainly diurnal and overlapped with M. nemorivaga active hours. However, we found that M. americana was more frequently hunted than M. nemorivaga. The probability of daytime activity was not influenced by hunting intensity. Temporal segregation, with asynchrony of activity periods, seems to be the mechanism behind the coexistence of M. americana and M. nemorivaga in Central Amazonia. The absence of hunting effects on brocket deer species in our study area suggests a low impact of harvest on both species' behaviour. This indicates that contexts of low human density and large extensions of pristine forests can enable hunted brocket deer populations to be sustained through source‐sink dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many game species are prey species and evolved to cope with significant mortality by natural predators. In the absence of predation or hunting, these game populations will be limited by resource depletion or disease. Both situations may fall within the overabundance definition. We review drivers of game species overabundance, considering if recreational hunting can effectively manage this challenge. We show examples of overabundance management in European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), deer (red deer Cervus elaphus and white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) or its relative, the feral pig. We also consider available alternatives for managing overabundant wildlife such as habitat management, predator restoration, pathogen introductions, professional culling, immunocontraception, and poisoning. Most alternatives can be included in integrated wildlife management strategies but are unsuitable alone for large-scale overabundance control. We conclude that, when available, it is advisable to use recreational hunting as one tool in the box. Recreational hunting will perform best as a means of population control within integrated wildlife management strategies, combining hunting with habitat management. To maintain the contribution of recreational hunting for managing overabundance, hunters need to survey demographics of game populations to adequately plan harvest quotas. They should continue developing their commitment with biodiversity conservation, monitoring programs, and animal/public health. Agencies could set acceptable targets and facilitate hunting, educating the public about recreational hunting as socio-ecological service. Hunting and conservation should go hand in hand, with special caution regarding native endangered species that locally become pests needing sustainable management including adaptive hunting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spillover of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) to North American white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) has been documented. However, it is unclear if this is a phenomenon specific to North American deer or is a broader problem. We evaluated pre and pandemic exposure of German and Austrian deer species using a SARS-CoV-2 pseudoneutralization assay. In stark contrast to North American white-tailed deer, we found no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote camera use by hunters offers the potential to collect citizen‐derived data on multiple species using hunter surveys, but the effectiveness of this approach is untested. We examine whether observations from remote cameras that hunters use at their black bear (Ursus americanus) bait sites and reported via hunter surveys are an effective method to monitor species. We compared data collected from pseudo‐bear bait sites established for this study to hunter established bear bait site observations from the same study area. We also quantified observations reported on hunter surveys as a landscape index alternative to white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunter indices, gray wolf (Canis lupus) surveys, and mustelid (Mustelidae) trapper indices. We did not detect a difference in hunter‐reported camera observations versus our observations for four of the six species recorded at pseudo‐bear bait sites. Hunters were over nine times more likely to report photographing wolves and nearly one third as likely to report photographing mustelids. We observed a relationship between trapper survey‐derived mustelid indices and the camera‐derived index, but not for deer or wolves. Foremost, these results emphasize the need to further evaluate the utility of remote camera data derived from hunters. The widespread use of remote cameras by hunters, the low‐cost of hunter surveys, and the potential to collect accurate community composition and occurrence/presence indices, points to the value of adding questions to hunter surveys regarding multiple species of interest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations and deer hunter participation on federal public lands within the Appalachian Mountains of the southeastern United States have been declining over the last 30 years. Our study focused on Chattahoochee National Forest hunters in North Georgia, a region that has sustained a 64% decline in buck harvest success rates and 68% decline in hunter participation during 1979–2018. To better understand factors influencing satisfaction of remaining hunters, we sent mail questionnaires to 1,271 hunters in February 2019. We received 441 completed questionnaires for a 36% adjusted response rate. First, we used principal component analysis to identify 4 unique motivations for deer hunting: 1) escaping the daily routine and spending time outdoors, 2) harvesting deer for food, 3) socializing with hunting partners, and 4) harvesting trophy bucks. Second, we used ordinal logistic regression, which indicated that perception of a low deer population density was associated with lower levels of satisfaction. Perception of the right number of hunters on the landscape was associated with higher levels of satisfaction. In addition, greater importance ratings of harvesting trophy bucks were associated with lower satisfaction levels. Last, we applied revised importance‐performance analysis to 19 aspects of WMA deer hunting, which revealed that managers should focus on increasing opportunities for hunters to see deer and harvest bucks for the best chance at improving hunter satisfaction. Considering the 64% decline in harvest success rates between 1979 and 2018, the positive relationship between hunter satisfaction and perception of deer density, and hunter desires to see more deer and have more opportunities to harvest bucks, we recommend managing the deer population to increase numbers. Overall, our findings suggested that hunters and managers agree on the direction of deer management on North Georgia public lands for the near future. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations and hunter participation on federal public lands within the Appalachian Mountain region of the southeastern United States have declined over the past 30 years. Based on a 2019 mail survey of Chattahoochee National Forest deer hunters in the Appalachian Mountains of North Georgia, USA, managers should prioritize increasing opportunities for hunters to see deer and harvest bucks in order to increase hunter satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife diseases, such as Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) are growing in prevalence in ungulates in western Canada with many questions being asked about the impact on ecosystems and peoples. A collaborative research project involving a university and a regional Indigenous organization was initiated in 2007 to explore how CWD risk is being communicated to Indigenous peoples, how associated risk is being interpreted and the extent to which information about CWD and perceived risk is affecting harvest and food security. Data collected between 2008–2018 with 105 harvesters from 22 northern Alberta communities reporting about hunting in roughly 61 management units (WMU) confirm previous research about the importance of moose, white-tailed deer and mule deer to the diets of Indigenous peoples. Findings affirm the significance of ungulates to the food security of Indigenous peoples in western Canada with over 97 % of respondents reporting their motivation for harvest of moose (Alces alces), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) being food. Insights about risk communication and perception of CWD are also highlighted with the most significant finding being the high level of concern of harvesters in all areas and all years of the study. A second key finding relates to the relationship between information received about CWD which declined from 2008 to 2018 despite significant increases in the number of positive cases of CWD in Alberta. A third key finding is the importance of Indigenous Knowledge; over 97 % of respondents shared indicators of healthy moose and deer which they use to assess animals in hunting. This high degree of confidence in their own knowledge may suggest Indigenous knowledge is a mediator of risk perception (i.e., hunters are confident they can find and harvest a health animal despite the rising number of CWD cases). Although Indigenous right to lands and resources including wildlife harvesting have been little respected in the past, recognition of such rights, as well as Indigenous knowledge, is key to moving forward and developing more collaborative approaches to monitoring and managing the growing threat of CWD and other wildlife disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To review information related with the reproductive physiology and management of white-tailed deer for reproductive specialists and producers. Design/methodology/approach: The information presented in this document relies on the review of scientific papers and on experience gained in white-tail deer production systems. Results: White-tailed deer is a species with seasonal reproduction and one of the most important hunting species in Mexico. Currently, all reproductive biotechnologies applied to small ruminants can be used in whitetailed deer. Limitations of the study/implications: Information regard the physiology and reproductive management of white-tailed deer is limited, probably due to conditions specific to its production system. Findings/conclusions: Research and publication of information regard the physiology and reproductive management of white-tailed deer is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease circulating in wild and farmed cervid populations throughout North America (United States and Canada), Europe (Finland, Norway, Sweden), and South Korea. CWD is a long-term threat to all cervid populations and to cervid hunting heritage, with the potential to cause substantial economic losses across multiple sectors. In North America, hunting and farming industries focused on the processing and consumption of white-tailed deer (WTD) venison are particularly vulnerable to CWD prion contamination, as millions of WTD are consumed annually. Real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) is a highly sensitive assay amplifying misfolded CWD prions in vitro and has facilitated CWD prion detection in a variety of tissues and excreta. To date, no study has comprehensively examined CWD prion content across bulk skeletal muscle tissues harvested from individual CWD infected WTD. Here, we use RT-QuIC to characterize prion-seeding activity in a variety of skeletal muscles from both wild and farmed CWD-positive WTD. We successfully detected CWD prions in muscles commonly used for consumption (e.g., backstrap, tenderloin, etc.) as well as within tongue and neck samples of WTD. Our results suggest that CWD prions are distributed across the skeletal muscles of infected WTD. We posit that RT-QuIC will be a useful tool for monitoring CWD prions in venison and that the method (with additional protocol optimization and high-throughput functionality) could be used to reduce and/or prevent CWD prions from entering animal and human food chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resource depression – a decline in encounter rates with prey due to the actions of a predator – has been documented for numerous species in North America. Yet it is not fully understood whether white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the most common prey species for Native peoples in eastern North America, were depressed prior to European colonization. To investigate whether white-tailed deer were depressed in precolonial eastern North America, I analyze zooarchaeological data from six sites in the Middle Tennessee River Valley. My results are equivocal, as different lines of evidence support conflicting interpretations. Declines in the abundance of deer in upland sites after ca. 4000 cal BP support depression of deer. However, deer did not decline in floodplain sites, perhaps due to anthropogenic environmental modification (i.e., burning). The upland decline coincides with a shift toward greater wetland patch use, which may have driven a reduction in deer hunting due to patch choice dynamics, not depression. Furthermore, declining deer abundance co-occurs with high terrestrial foraging efficiency, contrary to the expectation that greater exploitation of lower-ranked prey types should occur coincident with high-ranked deer declines. I find no clear support for resource depression of white-tailed deer in this region, but further analysis is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

State wildlife agencies have regulatory authority and oversight over deer (Cervidae) management in the United States. However, increased urban sprawl and overabundant deer populations have created increased human–deer conflicts. Because of the growing controversy surrounding the use of traditional management practices such as regulated hunting in suburban areas in the eastern United States, managers are now using specialized tools and management approaches to reduce deer conflicts in urban areas. However, this has created new challenges as they try to meet the desires of diverse stakeholder groups. Although deer management programs in urban areas differ somewhat in every state, effective management options remain limited. Essentially the same management tools that were used for 3 decades have not changed, even with substantial investments in deer research. Despite public support for deer fertility control, it is still largely experimental and expensive. Immunocontraceptive vaccines are seldom used because of the cost and difficulty of retreating free-ranging deer. Surgical sterilization of deer has shown promise, but the scale of application remains limited by cost and the number of deer that need to be handled. Lethal deer removal remains the only method that has consistently reduced deer numbers in an acceptable time frame at multiple scales. Even in areas where urban deer numbers have been substantially reduced using lethal methods, the resulting effects on deer populations and human–deer conflicts have been poorly documented. In highly fragmented, developed landscapes, removing enough deer to demonstrate impact reduction has been a difficult and expensive process. It usually takes multiple approaches across several years to achieve desired results. Thus, the lack of long-term planning and sufficient budgets needed to sustain management efforts may impede overall program success and sustainability. Herein, I review the lessons learned from multiple deer research and management efforts from suburban areas in the eastern United States and highlight potential directions for future urban deer management programs.

Lead remnants from spent ammunition introduce health risks to humans and wildlife that consume game harvested with firearms. Most current research has focused on effects of high‐velocity rifle bullets, whereas low‐velocity lead ammunition has received little attention. We examined whether fragmentation characteristics differed between 3 common low‐velocity ammunition types when shot into the thoracic cavity or shoulder of white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) culled in Indiana, USA, from May–September of 2009. We shot and subsequently radiographed 43 deer to determine the number of fragments, fragment size, and distance traveled by individual fragments. We also radiographed deer post‐evisceration to determine the proportion of fragments available to humans and wildlife scavengers for consumption in muscle and visceral tissue, respectively. All radiographed deer had evidence of fragmentation, with a geometric mean of 13.1 (95% CI = 10.3, 16.8) fragments/deer. Most fragments (89%) were <5 mm from wound channels, and no fragment traveled beyond 205 mm from a wound channel. Fragments were often retained within the muscle tissue of deer with a geometric mean rate of 0.55 (95% CI = 0.48, 0.65). Muzzleloader bullet fragments were larger than those generated by rifled and sabot slugs, and sabot slug fragments had the shortest dispersal from wound channels. Shoulder‐shot placement and bone contact for all ammunition resulted in a greater number of fragments (P < 0.01). Shoulder‐shots also generated more small fragments and higher fragment retention in muscle tissue. The overall mean number of lead fragments detected across our ammunition treatments was less than previous studies. Our results indicate ammunition type and shot placement may be considerations for hunters wishing to limit their potential exposure to lead from harvested big game. Additionally, when compared to high‐velocity rifle bullets, significantly fewer lead fragments are made available to humans and wildlife that consume game harvested with low‐velocity ammunition types, such as those tested here. Complete elimination of lead ingestion by humans and wildlife, however, is only possible by using non‐toxic ammunition alternatives. © 2020 The Wildlife Society. Analysis of 3 common low‐velocity ammunition types reveals lead fragmentation patterns depend on ammunition type and shot placement. We contrast our findings with previous research on lead deposition in wild game and make recommendations for mitigating lead exposure risk to humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calls for ethical management of wildlife in the international conservation community are increasing. However, it is not clear what this actually entails. Using a case of lethal (hunting) and nonlethal control (fertility control) of "chronically abundant" large herbivores such as white‐tailed deer in rural and suburban areas of the United States we show what different ethical values and commitments may lead to in terms of management preference. The values looked at are humane treatment of deer, not killing them and allowing them a natural life. In terms of deer welfare, fertility control might be, overall, better than lethal control; in terms of naturalness, lethal control may have the edge. However, this conclusion is tentative. There are insufficient studies on the welfare effects of different control methods, and the specificities will also make a difference. In conclusion, there is no simple or single answer as to what constitutes "ethical management" of deer populations. Different values can be prioritized, and different ethical approaches adopted (e.g., "respecting rights" or "best consequences.") A better understanding of what is at stake ethically could help both in designing further research and in making transparent and well‐informed decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individual animals vary in their selection of habitat as a function of sex, age, and experience. Such individual heterogeneity is important when decomposing segments of the population that may or may not respond to habitat or population management, or when targeting management that has greater potential for increasing demographic responses (e.g., survival). We examined individual heterogeneity in habitat selection during the hunting season using multilevel step selection models for 59 adult (≥2.5 yr old) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) of both sexes. We used fractal analysis to determine the scale at which animals perceived and responded to the landscape, and modeled selection using covariates for use of agriculture, wetland, edge, forest interior, and distance to road. We tested for differences in individualspecific habitat selection between age classes and modeled survival as a function of individual-specific selection using proportional hazard modeling. At the population level, males selected for agriculture and forest interior and avoided roads, while adult females selected for agriculture. Individual-specific selection of forest interior differed between age classes in males, with mature males selecting interior forest less frequently than immature males. Risk of mortality was related negatively to individual-specific selection for wetland areas in males and forest interior for females. No habitat variables that were selected for or avoided at the population level influenced mortality risk at the individual level, suggesting management efforts based on traditional population-level analysis may be misguided. Managers attempting to influence population dynamics via habitat and harvest management should be aware of the substantial heterogeneity in habitat selection among individual animals before implementing costly practices that may not be effective for their objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]