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Objectives To investigate if an exercise-based injury prevention program (IPP) can modify risk factors for injury in community-level adolescent cricket pace bowlers. Design Cluster-randomised controlled trial. Methods Eight cricket organisations (training two times per week and no previous involvement in a structured IPP) participated in this cluster-randomised trial. Participants were aged 14–17 years, injury free, and not currently performing a rehabilitation/exercise program. Cricket organisations (clusters) were block-randomised by computerised number generation into an intervention group (performed an eight-week IPP at training) or control group (continued their usual cricket activity). Participants were not blinded to group allocation. Strength, endurance, and neuromuscular control were assessed at baseline and follow-up. Treatment effects were estimated using linear mixed models. Results Sixty-five male adolescent pace bowlers (intervention n = 32 and control n = 33) were randomised. There were significant treatment effects favouring the intervention group for shoulder strength (90°/s) 0.05 (95% CI 0.02–0.09) N m/kg, hamstring strength (60°/s) 0.32 (95% CI 0.13–0.50) N m/kg, hip adductor strength dominant 0.40 (95% CI 0.26–0.55) N m/kg and non-dominant 0.33 (95% CI 0.20–0.47) N m/kg, SEBT reach distance dominant 3.80 (95% CI 1.63–6.04) percent of leg length (%LL) and non-dominant 3.60 (95% CI 1.43–5.78) %LL, and back endurance 20.4 (95% CI 4.80–36.0) seconds. No differences were observed for shoulder strength (180°/s) (p = 0.09), hamstring strength (180°/s) (p = 0.07), lumbopelvic stability (p = 0.90), and single leg squat knee valgus angle (dominant p = 0.06, non-dominant p = 0.15). Conclusions Exercise-based IPPs can modify risk factors for injury in community-level adolescent pace bowlers. Future research is needed to confirm if IPPs can also reduce injury risk in this population.

Maximal strength can be predicted from the load-velocity relationship (LVR), although it is important to understand methodological approaches which ensure the validity and reliability of these strength predictions. The aim of this systematic review was to determine factors which influence the validity of maximal strength predictions from the LVR, and secondarily to highlight the effects of these factors on the reliability of predictions. A search strategy was developed and implemented in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and CINAHL databases. Rayyan software was used to screen titles, abstracts, and full texts to determine their inclusion/eligibility. Eligible studies compared direct assessments of one-repetition maximum (1RM) with predictions performed using the LVR and reported prediction validity. Validity was extracted and represented graphically via effect size forest plots. Twenty-five eligible studies were included and comprised of a total of 842 participants, three different 1RM prediction methods, 16 different exercises, and 12 different velocity monitoring devices. Four primary factors appear relevant to the efficacy of predicting 1RM: the number of loads used, the exercise examined, the velocity metric used, and the velocity monitoring device. Additionally, the specific loads, provision of velocity feedback, use of lifting straps and regression model used may require further consideration.

Some studies have linked bilingualism with a later onset of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Not all studies have observed such relationships, however. Differences in study outcomes may be due to methodological limitations and the presence of confounding factors within studies such as immigration status and level of education. We conducted the first systematic review with meta-analysis combining cross-sectional studies to explore if bilingualism might delay symptom onset and diagnosis of dementia, AD, and MCI. Primary outcomes included the age of symptom onset, the age at diagnosis of MCI or dementia, and the risk of developing MCI or dementia. A secondary outcome included the degree of disease severity at dementia diagnosis. There was no difference in the age of MCI diagnosis between monolinguals and bilinguals [mean difference: 3.2; 95% confidence intervals (CI): -3.4, 9.7]. Bilinguals vs. monolinguals reported experiencing AD symptoms 4.7 years (95% CI: 3.3, 6.1) later. Bilinguals vs. monolinguals were diagnosed with dementia 3.3 years (95% CI: 1.7, 4.9) later. Here, 95% prediction intervals showed a large dispersion of effect sizes (-1.9 to 8.5). We investigated this dispersion with a subgroup meta-analysis comparing studies that had recruited participants with dementia to studies that had recruited participants with AD on the age of dementia and AD diagnosis between mono- and bilinguals. Results showed that bilinguals vs. monolinguals were 1.9 years (95% CI: -0.9, 4.7) and 4.2 (95% CI: 2.0, 6.4) older than monolinguals at the time of dementia and AD diagnosis, respectively. The mean difference between the two subgroups was not significant. There was no significant risk reduction (odds ratio: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.68-1.16) in developing dementia among bilinguals vs. monolinguals. Also, there was no significant difference (Hedges' g = 0.05; 95% CI: -0.13, 0.24) in disease severity at dementia diagnosis between bilinguals and monolinguals, despite bilinguals being significantly older. The majority of studies had adjusted for level of education suggesting that education might not have played a role in the observed delay in dementia among bilinguals vs. monolinguals. Although findings indicated that bilingualism was on average related to a delayed onset of dementia, the magnitude of this relationship varied across different settings. This variation may be due to unexplained heterogeneity and different sources of bias in the included studies. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42015019100.

Objectives Undesirable bowling kinematics can increase the risk of low back injury. This study investigated if an exercise-based injury prevention program (IPP) could modify bowling kinematics in community-level adolescent pace bowlers. Design Cluster-randomised controlled trial. Methods Pace bowlers from eight cricket organisations were cluster-randomised into an intervention or control group. At baseline and follow-up sessions biomechanical bowling data were collected. Between sessions, the intervention group completed an eight-week IPP while the control continued their normal cricket activity. Treatment effects (95% CI) were estimated with linear mixed models. Results There were significant treatment effects favouring the intervention group for shoulder counter-rotation (−3.8°; −7.2° to −0.3°) and lateral trunk flexion relative to the pelvis (−2.2°; −4.0° to −0.5°). Shoulder counter-rotation also increased in the control group by 2.2° (Cohen’s d = 0.22). There were no effects of the intervention on: lateral trunk flexion at front foot contact (FFC) (1.2°; −2.5° to 4.8°), lateral trunk flexion at ball release (BR) (−0.5°; −3.0° to 2.0°), pelvis rotation at FFC (0.9°; −4.0° to 2.2°), pelvis rotation at BR (−1.1°; −5.7° to 3.6°), front hip angle at FFC (1.6°; −3.6° to 6.7°), front hip angle at BR (−1.6°; −5.0° to 1.9°), front knee angle at FFC (−1.1°; −4.5° to 2.3°), front knee angle at BR (1.7°; −5.6° to 9.1°), or ball velocity (1.1 km h−1; −7.5 km h−1 to 9.7 km h−1). Conclusions The IPP maintained shoulder counter-rotation and lateral trunk flexion relative to the pelvis in the intervention group and this could attenuate injury risk. No treatment effects were observed for lower-limb kinematics.

The timing of exercise relative to meal consumption has recently been identified as potentially moderating the effectiveness of exercise on glycemic responses in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature related to exercise timing, relative to meal consumption, and glycemic control in individuals with T2DM.Systematic searches in PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov Registry databases were performed to identify articles published in English from inception to October 2017. Two authors independently extracted data and evaluated the quality of studies using the Cochrane Collaboration Data Collection Form and the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Assessment Tool, respectively. A qualitative synthesis was performed on the included studies, and results summarized in tables.Nineteen randomized controlled trials with a total of 346 participants were included. Improvements in glycemia (glucose concentrations and glucose area under the curve) and insulin area under the curve appeared more consistent when exercise was performed during the postmeal period as compared with the premeal period; however, this observation was largely based on indirect comparisons between studies.There is some evidence from randomized controlled trials that exercise performed 30 min after meal consumption may convey greater improvements in glycemic control for individuals with T2DM. However, there are only two studies that have directly assessed the role of exercise timing on glycemic management, and adopted methodologies are heterogeneous. Future low-risk trials in this field are warranted.

Adolescent cricket pace bowlers are prone to non-contact shoulder, low back and lower-limb injuries. Exercise-based injury prevention programmes (IPPs) are effective for reducing non-contact injuries in athletes; however, a specific programme for adolescent pace bowlers has not been published. This paper therefore seeks to provide a rationale for the development of an exercise-based IPP specific for adolescent pace bowlers. It also outlines design principles and provides an example exercise programme that can be implemented at the community level. In addition, the paper addresses other injury prevention techniques concerned with the prescription of appropriate bowling loads and the modification of poor bowling biomechanics. Performing an exercise-based IPP before cricket training could reduce injury rates in adolescent pace bowlers. Eccentric strengthening exercises can be employed to target injuries to the posterior shoulder muscles, hip adductors and hamstring muscles. The risk of low back, knee and ankle injury could also be reduced with the inclusion of dynamic neuromuscular control exercises and trunk extensor endurance exercises. Other prevention strategies that need to be considered include the modification of poor bowling biomechanics, such as shoulder counter-rotation and lateral trunk flexion. Coaches and players should also aim to quantify bowling load accurately and coaches should use this information to prescribe appropriate individualised bowling loads. Specifically, players would benefit from avoiding both long periods of low load and acute periods when load is excessively high. Future evidence is needed to determine the effectiveness of the example programme outlined in this paper. It would also be beneficial to investigate whether the modification of bowling biomechanics is achievable at the non-elite level and if bowling load can be accurately measured and manipulated within a community-level population.

Adolescent cricket pace bowlers are prone to injury. Recognising the risk factors for non-contact injury in this population will aid future injury prevention strategies. To identify the risk factors for non-contact injury in adolescent cricket pace bowlers. We systematically searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, PEDro, SPORTDiscus, Embase, and the South African Journal of Sports Medicine to identify all experimental and observational studies reporting risk factors for non-contact injuries in pace bowlers (aged 12–19 years). The search syntax included terms relevant to cricket bowling, injury, and known risk factors for injury. The Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale and a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale were used to assess the risk of bias in the cohort and cross-sectional studies, respectively. Sixteen studies (five cross-sectional studies, 11 cohort studies) comprising 687 participants (96% male, 75% playing cricket in Australia) met the selection criteria and were included for qualitative synthesis. Three cross-sectional studies were rated as high risk of bias and two as very high risk of bias. For the cohort studies, three were rated as low risk of bias, and eight as high risk of bias. Injury was associated with bowling biomechanics (excessive lateral trunk flexion and pelvis/hip kinematics), reduced trunk endurance, poor lumbo-pelvic-hip movement control, and early signs of lumbar bone stress. Conflicting results were found by studies examining the mixed technique, bowling workload and quadratus lumborum asymmetry. The current systematic review identified a number bowling biomechanics and various neuromuscular deficiencies as risk factors for non-contact injury in adolescent pace bowlers. These factors may provide a useful target for future interventional research aiming to prevent injury in this population. Future studies should utilise prospective cohort designs, and ensure that participants are injury-free at baseline, confounding factors are well controlled and attrition rates are reported. This systematic review was registered a priori (PROSPERO, CRD42016043956).

Presentations of a to-be-conditioned stimulus (CS) on its own impairs subsequent learning when that CS is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Evidence for this latent inhibition (LI) effect in humans is said to require a “masking task” that diverts attention from the CS during preexposure. We present three experiments that demonstrate LI in humans without masking. Subjects performed a computerised task, making speeded responses to an imperative cue (the US) presented within a continuous stream of stimuli. During preexposure, a to-be-CS was presented 20 times among other stimuli, but excluding the US. Instructions ensured subjects actively monitored all stimuli at this time. This was immediately followed by the training phase, which included the US, the preexposed CS, and a novel CS. Both CSs were reliably followed by the US, but these associations were incidental to the instructed task. Nonetheless, some subjects learned the CS-US associations, responding faster when the US followed a CS than when it was unsignalled. All three experiments also found evidence for LI, in that subjects learned the novel CS-US association sooner than the preexposed CS-US association. We conclude that humans can show LI even when actively attending to the CS during preexposure.

Adolescent fast bowlers are prone to sustaining lumbar injuries. Numerous components have been identified as contributing factors; however, there is limited empirical evidence outlining how the muscles of the lumbopelvic region, which play a vital role in stabilising the spine, function during the bowling action and the influence of such activation on injuries in the fast bowler.Surface electromyography was utilised to measure the function of the lumbar erector spinae, lumbar multifidus, gluteus medius and gluteus maximus muscles bilaterally during the fast bowling action in a group of 35 cricket fast bowlers aged 12-16 years.Two prominent periods of activation occurred in each of the muscles examined. The period of greatest mean activation in the erector spinae and multifidus occurred near back foot contact (BFC) and within the post-ball-release (BR) phase. The period of greatest mean activation for the gluteus medius and gluteus maximus occurred during phases of ipsilateral foot contact.The greatest periods of muscle activation in the paraspinal and gluteal muscles occurred at times where vertical forces were high such as BFC, and in the phases near BR where substantial shear forces are present.The posterior muscles within the lumbopelvic region appear to play a prominent role during the bowling action, specifically when compressive and shear forces are high. Further research is required to substantiate these findings and establish the role of the lumbopelvic muscles in the aetiology of lumbar injury in the cricket fast bowler.