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The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of different levels of sustained physical activity on neural reflections of attention allocated toward food cues in first year college women.Seventy-nine first-year college women (18.6 ± 0.5 years) were recruited to participate in the study. Women were randomly assigned to a daily step goal of 10,000, 12,500, or 15,000 for 24 weeks. Once during weeks 16-24, participants were shown pictures of plated meals or flowers with the neural response measured using the P300 and late positive potential (LPP) components of the scalp-recorded event-related potential. Diet was assessed using the automated 24-h recall.Both the P300 and LPP amplitudes were significantly more positive to food versus flower pictures (ps .001). There was no interaction between step group and picture condition for the P300 and LPP. However, the 12,500-step group showed a significantly elevated LPP amplitude in comparison to the other groups for both food and flowers (F(2,74) = 8.84; p .001). The effect size for the combined results (food and flowers) was 0.56 between 10,000 and 12,500-step groups, and 0.75 between the 12,500- and 15,000-step groups. In addition, the 12,500 group reduced caloric consumption over the course of the intervention (t(1,74) = 3.35, p = .001, dHabitual physical activity of 10,000, 12,500, or 15,000 steps per day does not preferentially alter neural reflections toward food cues compared to flowers. There may be a nonlinear response to pleasant visual cues, with 12,500 steps per day eliciting higher LPPs than either 10,000 or 15,000.

Sedentary behaviors, such as computer use and sedentary video games, are barriers to physical activity, contribute to overweight and obesity among adolescents, and can adversely affect eating behaviors. Active video games may increase daily physical activity levels among adolescents and improve food-related inhibitory control. We compared the effects of acute bouts of active and sedentary video gaming on event-related potential (ERP) indices of food-related inhibitory control, energy expenditure, and ad libitum eating. In a within-subjects design, 59 adolescent participants (49% female, Mage = 13.29 ± 1.15) completed two separate counterbalanced, 60-minute long video gaming sessions separated by seven days. Immediately after, participants completed two go/no-go tasks with high- and low-calorie images and N2 and P3 ERP amplitudes were measured. Participants also completed a Stroop task and were given high- and low-calorie snacks to consume ad libitum. Results indicated that active relative to sedentary video games significantly increased energy expenditure on multiple measures (e.g., METs, heart rate, kcals burned) and participants consumed more calories after the active compared to the sedentary video game session. N2 amplitudes were larger when participants inhibited to high- compared to low-calorie foods, suggesting high-calorie foods necessitate increased recruitment of inhibitory control resources; however, there were non-significant differences for the N2 or P3 amplitudes, accuracy or response times, and Stroop performance between active versus sedentary video game sessions. Overall, sixty minutes of active video gaming increased energy expenditure and food consumption but did not significantly alter neural or behavioral measures of inhibitory control to food stimuli.

Performance-monitoring event-related brain potentials (ERPs), such as the error-related negativity (ERN) and reward positivity (RewP), are advocated as biomarkers of depression symptoms and risk. However, a recent meta-analysis indicated effect size heterogeneity in the ERN and RewP literatures. Hence, advocating these ERPs as biomarkers of depression might be premature or possibly misguided due to the selective reporting of significant analyses on the part of researchers (e.g., p-hacking or omission of non-significant findings). The present study quantified the degree of selective reporting and the evidential value for a true relationship between depression and ERN and RewP using a p-curve analysis. We predicted that the ERN and RewP literatures would fail to show evidential value for a relationship between each ERP and depression. Contrary to expectations, both literatures showed evidential value, albeit weak. The statistical power of the included ERN studies was between 20% and 25%, and the statistical power of the RewP was around 27%. Taken together, these findings provide support for a relationship between these ERPs and depression, which strengthens claims that these ERPs represent candidate biomarkers of depression symptoms and risk. In light of the evidence for these relationships being weak, some recommendations moving forward include conducting a priori power analyses, increasing sample sizes to improve statistical power, assessing the internal consistency of ERP scores, and carefully planning statistical approaches to maximize power.

Open science practices are gaining momentum in psychophysiological research, but at the nascent stage of this special issue in the International Journal of Psychophysiology there was no systematic collection of resources to support the adoption of open science practices specific to studies of human electrophysiology (EEG). The purpose of this special issue was to gather and provide resources that identify the idiosyncratic considerations and implications of open science practices specifically for studies of human EEG and event-related potentials (ERPs). Papers also show the importance of promoting good scientific practices in the application of open science principles to EEG and ERPs. This introduction to the special issue provides a roadmap for identifying the resources necessary to begin and improve the application of open science principles to EEG and ERP research. We are optimistic that open science practices will help increase the robustness, rigor, and replicability of EEG research and ultimately become the norm in studies of EEG and ERPs.

Background Abnormal performance monitoring is a possible transdiagnostic marker of psychopathology. Research on neural indices of performance monitoring, including the error-related negativity (ERN), typically examines group and interindividual (between-person) differences in mean/average scores. Intraindividual (within-person) variability in activity captures the capacity to dynamically adjust from moment to moment, and excessive variability appears maladaptive. Intraindividual variability in ERN represents a unique and largely unexamined dimension that might impact functioning. We tested whether psychopathology group differences (major depressive disorder [MDD], generalized anxiety disorder [GAD], obsessive-compulsive disorder [OCD]) or corresponding psychiatric symptoms account for intraindividual variability in single-trial ERN scores. Methods High-density electroencephalogram (Electrical Geodesics, Inc.) was recorded during a semantic flanker task in 51 participants with MDD, 44 participants with GAD, 31 participants with OCD, and 56 psychiatrically-healthy participants. Mean ERN amplitude was scored 0-125ms following participant response across four fronto-central sites. Multilevel location-scale models were used to simultaneously examine interindividual and intraindividual differences in ERN. Results Analyses indicated considerable intraindividual variability in ERN that was common across groups. However, we did not find strong evidence to support relationships between ERN and psychopathology groups or transdiagnostic symptoms. Conclusions These findings point to important methodological implications for studies of performance monitoring in healthy and clinical populations—the common assumption of fixed intraindividual variability (i.e., residual variance) may be inappropriate for ERN studies. Implementation of multilevel location-scale models in future research can leverage between-person differences in intraindividual variability in performance monitoring to gain a rich understanding of trial-to-trial performance monitoring dynamics.

We suggest that a large data set for the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) components of the scalp-recorded event-related brain potential (ERP) recently published as normative is not ready for such use in research and, especially, clinical application. Such efforts are challenged by an incomplete understanding of the functional significance of between-person differences in amplitudes and of nuisance factors that contribute to amplitude differences, a lack of standardization of methods, and the use of a convenience sample for the potentially normative database. To move ERPs toward standardization and useful norms, we encourage more research on the meaning of differences in ERN scores, including factors that influence between- and within-person variation, and the dissemination of protocols for data collection and processing.

The intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) may detrimentally influence health outcomes. Drinking less soda may help manage SSB consumption, as soft drinks are a top contributor to SSB intake. One cognitive factor that may influence soda consumption is inhibitory control, or the ability to withhold a dominant response in order to correctly respond to one's environment. Increased inhibitory control plays a role in decreasing consumption of high-calorie foods and strengthening inhibitory control may help individuals manage their food intake. However, neural response to soda beverages versus traditional non-sweetened beverages, such as water, and how it relates to soda consumption is unknown. In a sample of 116 healthy individuals (M = 20.56; SD = 2.08; 47.4% female), we measured soda consumption and tested event-related potential (ERP) measures of inhibitory control, including the N2 and P3 components, during soda-specific and neutral comparison go/no-go tasks. Female participants consumed less soda on average than males, and as participants got older, they consumed less soda. Participants showed faster response times and higher accuracy on the soda-specific go/no-go task compared to the neutral go/no-go task. ERP results indicated inhibitory control was greater when individuals withheld dominant responses to soda stimuli rather than neutral stimuli. Neither N2 no-go amplitude on the soda-specific go/no-go task nor P3 no-go amplitude on the soda-specific task predicted measures of soda intake. Results suggest greater inhibitory control resources are required when withholding responses to soda beverages compared to neutral stimuli, but inhibitory control ERPs did not predict day-to-day soda intake.

Stress influences many health-related behaviors including diet and nutrition intake, often resulting in increased calorie intake, fewer healthy eating behaviors, and poorer nutrition. Food intake is modulated by inhibitory control and has important implications for our physical, mental, and emotional health. Yet, little is known about the relationship between stress and food-related inhibitory control. We tested the influence of a short-term experimental stressor on behavioral and event-related potential (ERP; N2 and P3 components) measures of food-related inhibitory control. Ninety-seven healthy participants were randomly assigned to complete the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) (n = 48, 27 females [52.9%]) or a neutral control condition (n = 49, 35 females [70%]) immediately followed by food-specific go/no-go and neutral go/no-go tasks while electroencephalogram (EEG) data were recorded. Stress levels were successfully manipulated, with heightened self-report and physiological measures (heart rate and systolic blood pressure) of the stress response in individuals who completed the TSST compared to control. As expected, the high calorie food-specific go/no-go task elicited larger N2 amplitude than the neutral task. N2 component amplitude was also significantly larger following the TSST relative to the control task. There were no significant between-group or task differences for P3 amplitude or behavioral measures. Findings suggest heightened N2 amplitude following psychological stress that is not specific to food or inhibition processes and may reflect heightened arousal following stress. Future research in individuals with overweight/obesity or experiencing chronic stress will further clarify the role of stress in food-related inhibitory control.

In studies of event-related brain potentials (ERPs), numerous decisions about data processing are required to extract ERP scores from continuous data. Unfortunately, the systematic impact of these choices on the data quality and psychometric reliability of ERP scores or even ERP scores themselves is virtually unknown, which is a barrier to the standardization of ERPs. The aim of the present study was to optimize processing pipelines for the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) by considering a multiverse of data processing choices. A multiverse analysis of a data processing pipeline examines the impact of a large set of different reasonable choices to determine the robustness of effects, such as the impact of different decisions on between-trial standard deviations (i.e., data quality) and between-condition differences (i.e., experimental effects). ERN and Pe data from 298 healthy young adults were used to determine the impact of different methodological choices on data quality and experimental effects (correct vs. error trials) at several key stages: highpass filtering, lowpass filtering, ocular artifact correction, reference, baseline adjustment, scoring sensors, and measurement procedure. This multiverse analysis yielded 3,456 ERN scores and 576 Pe scores per person. An optimized pipeline for ERN included a .01 Hz highpass filter, 15 Hz lowpass filter, ICA-based ocular artifact correction, and a region of interest (ROI) approach to scoring. For Pe, the optimized pipeline included a .10 Hz highpass filter, 30 Hz lowpass filter, regression-based ocular artifact correction, a -200 to 0 ms baseline adjustment window, and an ROI approach to scoring. The multiverse approach can be used to optimize pipelines for eventual standardization, which would support efforts toward establishing normative ERP databases. The proposed process of analyzing the data-processing multiverse of ERP scores paves the way for better refinement, identification, and selection of data processing parameters, ultimately improving the precision and utility of ERPs.

In studies of event-related brain potentials (ERPs), difference scores between conditions in a task are frequently used to isolate neural activity for use as a dependent or independent variable. Adequate score reliability is a prerequisite for studies examining relationships between ERPs and external correlates, but there is no extensive treatment on the suitability of the various available approaches to estimating difference score reliability that focus on ERP research. In the present study, we provide formulas from classical test theory and generalizability theory for estimating the internal consistency of subtraction-based and residualized difference scores. These formulas are then applied to error-related negativity (ERN) and reward positivity (RewP) difference scores from the same sample of 117 participants. Analyses demonstrate that ERN difference scores can be reliable, which supports their use in studies of individual differences. However, RewP difference scores yielded poor reliability due to the high correlation between the constituent reward and non-reward ERPs. Findings emphasize that difference score reliability largely depends on the internal consistency of constituent scores and the correlation between those scores. Furthermore, generalizability theory yields more suitable estimates of internal consistency for subtraction-based difference scores than classical test theory. We conclude that ERP difference scores can show adequate reliability and be useful for isolating neural activity in studies of individual differences.

Accurate reward predictions include forecasting both what a reward will be and when a reward will occur. We tested how variations in the certainty of reward outcome and certainty in timing of feedback presentation modulate neural indices of reward prediction errors using the reward positivity (RewP) component of the scalp-recorded brain event-related potential (ERP). In a within-subjects design, seventy-three healthy individuals completed two versions of a cued doors task; one cued the probability of a reward outcome while the other cued the probability of a delay before feedback. Replicating previous results, RewP amplitude was larger for uncertain feedback compared to certain feedback. Additionally, RewP amplitude was differentially associated with uncertainty of presence/absence of reward, but not uncertainty of feedback timing. Findings suggest a dissociation in that RewP amplitude is modulated by reward prediction certainty but is less affected by certainty surrounding timing of feedback.

Food-related inhibitory control, the ability to withhold a dominant response towards highly palatable foods, influences dietary decisions. Food-related inhibitory control abilities may increase following a bout of aerobic exercise; however, the impact of exercise intensity on both food-related inhibitory control and broader cognitive control processes is currently unclear. We used a high-powered, within-subjects, crossover design to test how relative intensity of aerobic exercise influenced behavioral (response time, accuracy) and neural (N2 and P3 components of the scalp-recorded event-related potential [ERP]) measures of food-related inhibitory and cognitive control. Two hundred and thirteen participants completed three separate conditions separated by approximately one week in randomized order: two exercise conditions (35% [moderate] or 70% [vigorous] of VO2max) and seated rest. Directly following exercise or rest, participants completed a food-based go/no-go task and a flanker task while electroencephalogram data were recorded. Linear mixed models showed generally faster response times (RT) and improved accuracy following vigorous exercise compared to rest, but not moderate-intensity exercise; RTs and accuracy did not differ between moderate intensity exercise and rest conditions. N2 and P3 amplitudes were larger following vigorous exercise for the food-based go/no-go task compared to rest and moderate intensity exercise. There were no differences between exercise conditions for N2 amplitude during the flanker task; however, P3 amplitude was more positive following vigorous compared to rest, but not moderate exercise. Gender did not moderate exercise outcomes. Results suggest improved and more efficient food- related recruitment of later inhibitory control and cognitive control processes following vigorous exercise.

Objective The aim of the study was to compare the relative predictive value of Marshall Classification System and Rotterdam scores on long-term rehabilitation outcomes. This study hypothesized that Rotterdam would outperform Marshall Classification System. Design The study used an observational cohort design with a consecutive sample of 88 participants (25 females, mean age = 42.0 [SD = 21.3]) with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury who were admitted to trauma service with subsequent transfer to the rehabilitation unit between February 2009 and July 2011 and who had clearly readable computed tomography scans. Twenty-three participants did not return for the 9-mo postdischarge follow-up. Day-of-injury computed tomography images were scored using both Marshall Classification System and Rotterdam criteria by two independent raters, blind to outcomes. Functional outcomes were measured by length of stay in rehabilitation and the cognitive and motor subscales of the Functional Independence Measure at rehabilitation discharge and 9-mo postdischarge follow-up. Results Neither Marshall Classification System nor Rotterdam scales as a whole significantly predicted Functional Independence Measure motor or cognitive outcomes at discharge or 9-mo follow-up. Both scales, however, predicted length of stay in rehabilitation. Specific Marshall scores (3 and 6) and Rotterdam scores (5 and 6) significantly predicted subacute outcomes such as Functional Independence Measure cognitive at discharge from rehabilitation and length of stay. Conclusions Marshall Classification System and Rotterdam scales may have limited utility in predicting long-term functional outcome, but specific Marshall and Rotterdam scores, primarily linked to increased severity and intracranial pressure, may predict subacute outcomes.

Active workstations are associated with improved health outcomes, but differences in cognitive and typing outcomes between the types of active workstations are unclear. We addressed two main questions: (1) Are there differences in cognitive and typing performance between seated and active workstations? (2) Are there differences in cognitive and typing performance between cycling and treadmill workstations, specifically? Participants included 137 healthy young adults (74 female, mean age = 20.8 years) who completed two sessions. At session one (baseline), all participants completed cognitive and typing tests including the Rey-Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, a typing test, and a flanker task while sitting at rest. At session two, participants were randomized to an active workstation group (treadmill or cycling desk) during which they performed the tests listed above in a randomized fashion, using alternate versions when available. Participants showed significantly better attention and cognitive control scores during the active session as compared to the seated session, but worse verbal memory scores during the active session. Participants were faster and more accurate at typing during the active session relative to the seated session. There were no significant differences between cycling or treadmill workstations on any cognitive or typing outcomes. Improvements during active sessions may be influenced by practice effects, although alternate forms were used when possible. We conclude that active workstations do not seem to largely impact cognitive abilities, with the exception of a slight decrease in verbal memory performance. Findings suggest active workstations, whether walking or cycling, are useful to improve physical activity, particularly when completing tasks that do not require verbal memory recall.

If an ERP score is to reflect a trait-like characteristic or indicate if an intervention had an effect over time, adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability of that ERP score across multiple testing sessions must be established. The current paper is a companion paper to Clayson et al. (current issue) that applied generalizability theory formulas and the ERP Reliability Analysis (ERA) Toolbox to assess test-retest and internal consistency in a dataset of event-related brain potentials (ERPs) assessing food-related cognition. Although ERPs in response to food cues have been related to eating behaviors or assessed during a health intervention, the reliability of food-related ERPs generally has not been tested. Within the generalizability theory framework, we assessed the stability (cf., test-retest reliability) and equivalence (cf., internal consistency) of four commonly used food-related ERPs: the late positive potential (LPP), centro-parietal P3, N2, and fronto-central P3. 132 participants (92 female) completed two testing sessions held two weeks apart. During the sessions, participants completed a passive food viewing task, a high-calorie go/no-go task, and a low-calorie go/no-go task in a counterbalanced fashion. Coefficients of equivalence for all ERPs were excellent (>0.96). Coefficients of stability were moderate-to-low, with N2 scores on the low-calorie go/no-go task showing the highest test-retest reliability (>0.65) and fronto-central P3 scores on the high-calorie go/no-go task showing the lowest (0.48). Results suggest the ERPs in the current dataset have high internal consistency and would be reliable in detecting individual differences, but their test-retest reliability is limited. Reliability of these ERPs may be improved with changes in task stimuli, task instructions, and study procedures.

The reliability of event-related brain potential (ERP) scores depends on study context and how those scores will be used, and reliability must be routinely evaluated. Many factors can influence ERP score reliability; generalizability (G) theory provides a multifaceted approach to estimating the internal consistency and temporal stability of scores that is well suited for ERPs. G theory's approach possesses a number of advantages over classical test theory that make it ideal for pinpointing sources of error in observed scores. The current primer outlines the G-theory approach to estimating internal consistency (coefficients of equivalence) and test-retest reliability (coefficients of stability). This approach is used to evaluate the reliability of ERP measurements. The primer outlines how to estimate reliability coefficients that consider the impact of the number of trials, events, occasions, and groups. The uses of two different G-theory reliability coefficients (i.e., generalizability and dependability) in ERP research are elaborated, and a dataset from the companion manuscript, which examines N2 amplitudes to Go/NoGo stimuli, is used as an example of the application of these coefficients to ERPs. The developed algorithms are implemented in the ERP Reliability Analysis (ERA) Toolbox, which is open-source software designed for estimating score reliability using G theory. The toolbox facilitates the application of G theory in an effort to simplify the study-by-study evaluation of ERP score reliability. The formulas provided in this primer should enable researchers to pinpoint the sources of measurement error in ERP scores from multiple recording sessions and subsequently plan studies that optimize score reliability.

We tested the effect of different intensities of acute exercise on hunger, and post-exercise energy intake, and neurophysiological measures of attention towards food- and non-food stimuli in women. In a within-subjects crossover design, forty-two women completed no exercise, moderate-intensity exercise, and vigorous-intensity exercise sessions separated by one week, in a counterbalanced fashion. At each session, participants completed a passive viewing task of food (high- and low-calorie) and non-food pictures while electroencephalogram (EEG) data were recorded. The early posterior negativity (EPN), P3, and late positive potential (LPP) components of the event-related potential (ERP) measured neurophysiological responses. Subjective ratings of hunger were measured before and immediately after each condition using a visual analog scale (VAS) and food intake was measured using an ad libitum snack buffet offered at the end of each condition. Results indicated that hunger levels increased as time passed for all sessions. EPN amplitude was larger to non-food compared to food images; P3 amplitude was larger to food than non-food stimuli. LPP amplitude did not differ by high-calorie, low-calorie, or non-food images. Notably, there were no significant main effects or interactions of any ERP component amplitude as a function of exercise intensity. Food intake also did not differ by rest or moderate or vigorous exercise, although subjective arousal ratings to the images were higher after moderate and vigorous exercise compared to rest. Food images also had higher arousal and valence ratings than non-food images overall. Findings indicate that, in this sample, acute moderate and vigorous exercise compared to rest did not disproportionately affect neurophysiological measures of attention to food or non-food stimuli, caloric intake, or hunger.

Cognitive control is often parsed into proactive and reactive control components. In proactive control, task- and goal-relevant information is utilized in a top-down manner to improve performance, while reactive control is a late-response corrective mechanism that occurs after conflict or errors. We tested whether people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) would show specific proactive control dysfunction in 31 individuals with OCD and 30 psychiatrically-healthy controls. We employed two tasks that differentiate proactive and reactive cognitive control processes: the cued-Stroop and the AX version of a continuous performance task (AX-CPT). There was a 1s or 5s delay between the cue and probe for both tasks to allow for implementation of proactive control processes. Participants also completed a neuropsychological test battery and mood and symptom severity self-report questionnaires. Although there were group-level differences in OCD severity and depression/anxiety symptoms, there were no significant differences in response times (RT) and error rates between groups for delay or condition for the cued-Stroop or for the AX-CPT, indicating similar performance in implementing proactive control strategies. There were also no significant differences between OCD and control participants on neuropsychological test performance. Results suggest a convergence of evidence wherein individuals with OCD are not showing disproportionately altered proactive control abilities.

Obesity and maintaining a healthy diet have important implications for physical and mental health. One factor that may influence diet and obesity is inhibitory control. We tested how N2 and P3 amplitude, event-related potential (ERP) components that reflect inhibitory control, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) activity in brain regions associated with inhibitory control differed toward high- and low-calorie food stimuli across BMI status. We also assessed the relationship between neural indices of food-related inhibitory control and laboratory and daily food intake. Fifty-four individuals (17 normal-weight; 18 overweight; 19 individuals with obesity) completed two food-based go/no-go tasks (one with high- and one with low-calorie foods as no-go stimuli), once during ERP data acquisition and once during fMRI data acquisition. After testing, participants were presented with an ad libitum weighed food buffet. Participants also recorded their food intake using the Automated Self-Administered 24-hour Dietary Recall (ASA24) system across four days. Individuals recruited more inhibitory control when withholding responses towards high-compared to low-calorie foods, although this effect was more consistent for N2 than P3 or fMRI assessments. BMI status did not influence food-related inhibitory control. A larger inhibitory response as measured by N2 amplitude was related to increased ASA24 food intake; P3 amplitude and fMRI region of interest activity did not predict ASA24 intake; neither method predicted food intake from the buffet. ERP and fMRI measurements show similar neural responses to food, although N2 amplitude may be somewhat more sensitive in detecting differences between food types and predicting self-reports of food intake.

Statistical training psychology focuses on frequentist methods. Bayesian methods are an alternative to standard frequentist methods. This article provides researchers with an introduction to fundamental ideas in Bayesian modeling. We use data from an electroencephalogram (EEG) and anxiety study to illustrate Bayesian models. Specifically, the models examine the relationship between error-related negativity (ERN), a particular event-related potential, and trait anxiety. Methodological topics covered include: how to set up a regression model in a Bayesian framework, specifying priors, examining convergence of the model, visualizing and interpreting posterior distributions, interval estimates, expected and predicted values, and model comparison tools. We also discuss situations where Bayesian methods can outperform frequentist methods as well has how to specify more complicated regression models. Finally, we conclude with recommendations about reporting guidelines for those using Bayesian methods in their own research. We provide data and R code for replicating our analyses.

Exercise may play a role in moderating eating behaviors. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an acute bout of exercise on neural responses to visual food stimuli in children ages 8–11 years. We hypothesized that acute exercise would result in reduced activity in reward areas of the brain. Using a randomized cross-over design, 26 healthy weight children completed two separate laboratory conditions (exercise; sedentary). During the exercise condition, each participant completed a 30-min bout of exercise at moderate-intensity (~ 67% HR maximum) on a motor-driven treadmill. During the sedentary session, participants sat continuously for 30 min. Neural responses to high- and low-calorie pictures of food were determined immediately following each condition using functional magnetic resonance imaging. There was a significant exercise condition*stimulus-type (high- vs. low-calorie pictures) interaction in the left hippocampus and right medial temporal lobe (p < 0.05). Main effects of exercise condition were observed in the left posterior central gyrus (reduced activation after exercise) (p < 0.05) and the right anterior insula (greater activation after exercise) (p < 0.05). The left hippocampus, right medial temporal lobe, left posterior central gyrus, and right anterior insula appear to be activated by visual food stimuli differently following an acute bout of exercise compared to a non-exercise sedentary session in 8–11 year-old children. Specifically, an acute bout of exercise results in greater activation to high-calorie and reduced activation to low-calorie pictures of food in both the left hippocampus and right medial temporal lobe. This study shows that response to external food cues can be altered by exercise and understanding this mechanism will inform the development of future interventions aimed at altering energy intake in children.

We examined the error-related negativity (ERN) as an endophenotype of ASD by comparing the ERN in families of ASD probands to control families. We hypothesized that ASD probands and families would display reduced-amplitude ERN relative to controls. Participants included 148 individuals within 39 families consisting of a mother, father, sibling, and proband. Robust ANOVAs revealed non-significant differences in ERN amplitude and behavioral performance among ASD probands relative to control youth. In subsequent multiple regression analyses group and kinship (proband, sibling, mother, father) did not significantly predict ΔERN (error minus correct ERN) or behavioral performance. Results do not provide evidence for the ERN as an endophenotype of ASD. Future research is needed to examine state- or trait-related factors influencing ERN amplitudes in ASD.

There is increasing focus across scientific fields on adequate sample sizes to ensure non-biased and reproducible effects. Very few studies, however, report sample size calculations or even the information needed to accurately calculate sample sizes for grants and future research. We systematically reviewed 100 randomly selected clinical human electrophysiology studies from six high impact journals that frequently publish electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related potential (ERP) research to determine the proportion of studies that reported sample size calculations, as well as the proportion of studies reporting the necessary components to complete such calculations. Studies were coded by the two authors blinded to the other's results. Inter-rater reliability was 100% for the sample size calculations and kappa above 0.82 for all other variables. Zero of the 100 studies (0%) reported sample size calculations. 77% utilized repeated-measures designs, yet zero studies (0%) reported the necessary variances and correlations among repeated measures to accurately calculate future sample sizes. Most studies (93%) reported study statistical values (e.g., F or t values). Only 40% reported effect sizes, 56% reported mean values, and 47% reported indices of variance (e.g., standard deviations/standard errors). Absence of such information hinders accurate determination of sample sizes for study design, grant applications, and meta-analyses of research and whether studies were adequately powered to detect effects of interest. Increased focus on sample size calculations, utilization of registered reports, and presenting information detailing sample size calculations and statistics for future researchers are needed and will increase sample size-related scientific rigor in human electrophysiology research.

Error-monitoring processes may be affected by transdiagnostic dimensions of psychopathology symptoms including trait anxiety, worry, and severity of depressive symptoms. We tested the relationship between continuous measures of anxiety and depressive symptomology and neural correlates of error-monitoring as measured by time-frequency domain delta and theta oscillatory power and time-domain error-related negativity (ERN) amplitude extracted from the electroencephalogram (EEG). Secondary analyses tested for diagnostic group differences in error-related neural responses in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and comorbid psychiatric disorders. About 178 participants (104 female, M[SD]age = 21.7[4.6]) with a wide range of psychopathology symptoms completed a modified version of the Eriksen flanker task and symptom questionnaires. Residualized difference values between correct and error trials for delta/theta power and error/correct ERN amplitude were used as dependent variables. Linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, and task accuracy showed nonsignificant associations of symptom dimension measures with error-related residualized delta/theta power or residualized ERN amplitude. Subset analyses on those with confirmed psychopathology diagnoses also did not predict residualized error-related delta/theta power nor residualized ERN amplitude (nGAD = 14, nMDD = 28, nComorbid = 19, nControl = 85). Taken in the context of the previous literature, results suggest a heterogeneous relationship between depressive and anxiety symptom dimensions and neurophysiological indices of error-monitoring.

Meta-analyses suggest inhibitory control training (ICT) may be effective for reducing food intake. However, psychological research has come under scrutiny for lack of reliability. Selective reporting (only reporting significant results) is one factor contributing to the lack of reliability in published research. Therefore, estimates of food-related ICT effects may be inaccurate. We conducted

Methodological reporting guidelines for studies of ERPs were updated in Psychophysiology in 2014. These guidelines facilitate the communication of key methodological parameters (e.g., preprocessing steps). Failing to report key parameters represents a barrier to replication efforts, and difficulty with replicability increases in the presence of small sample sizes and low statistical power. We assessed whether guidelines are followed and estimated the average sample size and power in recent research. Reporting behavior, sample sizes, and statistical designs were coded for 150 randomly sampled articles from five high-impact journals that frequently published ERP research from 2011 to 2017. An average of 63% of guidelines were reported, and reporting behavior was similar across journals, suggesting that gaps in reporting is a shortcoming of the field rather than any specific journal. Publication of the guidelines article had no impact on reporting behavior, suggesting that editors and peer reviewers are not enforcing these recommendations. The average sample size per group was 21. Statistical power was conservatively estimated as .72-.98 for a large effect size, .35-.73 for a medium effect, and .10-.18 for a small effect. These findings indicate that failing to report key guidelines is ubiquitous and that ERP studies are primarily powered to detect large effects. Such low power and insufficient following of reporting guidelines represent substantial barriers to replication efforts. The methodological transparency and replicability of studies can be improved by the open sharing of processing code and experimental tasks and by a priori sample size calculations to ensure adequately powered studies.

The impact of affective context on performance-monitoring aspects of cognitive control is not clear, and findings in the literature are contradictory. The contradictory findings might be due to failing to consider the impact of recent and concurrent affective contexts, participant ratings of emotional images, and the distinct impact of emotional arousal and valence. The present study utilized multilevel modeling (MLM) on person-specific ratings of arousal and valence to determine how recent and concurrent affective context uniquely impacts cognitive control and to determine the unique arousal and valence contributions. Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded while 35 and 33 participants completed a recent and concurrent affective manipulation, respectively. The recent manipulation used a task wherein a flanker stimulus was preceded by emotional images, and the concurrent manipulation used a task wherein a flanker stimulus was overlaid on emotional images. Higher arousing images were related to larger error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) during the recent but not concurrent affective context manipulation. For valence, more pleasant images were related to attenuated ERN during the concurrent, but not recent, affective context manipulation. For Pe, amplitude decreased with more pleasant valence during the concurrent affective context manipulation, and increased with more pleasant ratings during the recent affective context manipulation. Taken together, recent and concurrent affective context demonstrated unique impacts on performance monitoring. These effects were dissociable along orthogonal dimensions of arousal and valence. The present study highlights the importance of considering arousal and valence in studies of affective context and cognitive control.

The impact of individual differences on performance monitoring and psychopathology is a question of active debate. Personality traits associated with psychopathology may be related to poor internal performance monitoring (as measured by the error-related negativity [ERN]) but intact external performance monitoring (as measured by the reward positivity [RewP]), suggesting that there are underlying neural differences between internal and external performance monitoring processes. We tested the relationships between individual difference measures of perfectionism, locus of control, and ERN, Pe, and RewP component difference amplitude in a healthy undergraduate sample. A total of 128 participants (69 female, M(SD)age= 20.6(2.0) years) completed two tasks: a modified version of the Eriksen Flanker and a doors gambling task along with the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism scale, the Rotter Locus of Control scale, and the Levenson Multidimensional Locus of Control scale to quantify perfectionism and locus of control traits, respectively. Linear regressions adjusting for age and gender showed that neither ΔERN nor ΔRewP amplitude were significantly moderated by perfectionism or locus of control scores. Findings suggest that, in psychiatrically-healthy individuals, there is not a strong link between perfectionism, locus of control, and ERN or RewP amplitude. Future research on individual difference measures in people with psychopathology may provide further insight into how these personality traits affect performance monitoring.

A cognitive intervention that may reduce weight and caloric intake is inhibitory control training (ICT; having individuals repeatedly withhold dominant responses to unhealthy food images). We conducted a randomized controlled trial where 100 individuals with overweight or obesity were assigned to complete a generic (n = 48) or food-specific ICT (n = 52) training four times per week for four weeks. Weight and caloric intake were obtained at baseline, four-weeks, and 12-weeks. Participants also completed high-calorie and neutral go/no-go tasks while N2 event-related potential (ERP) data, a neural indicator of inhibitory control, was measured at all visits. Results from mixed model analyses indicate that neither weight, caloric intake, nor N2 ERP component amplitude towards high-calorie foods changed at post-testing or at the 12-week follow up. Regression analyses suggest that individuals with smaller N2 difference amplitudes to food may show greater weight loss and reductions in caloric intake after a generic ICT, while individuals with larger N2 difference amplitudes to food may show greater weight loss and reductions in caloric intake after a food-specific ICT. Overall, multiple food-specific or generic ICT sessions over the course of a four-week period do not affect overall weight loss, caloric intake, or N2 ERP amplitude.

Selective reporting (i.e., only reporting significant findings as opposed to all analyses or results) is a questionable research practice that undermines the integrity of published research. Psychophysiology research may be susceptible to selective reporting, given the high number of decision points and methodological complexity in analyses of psychophysiology data. We aimed to assess the presence of selective reporting and evidential value (i.e., that significant results are due to true underlying effects) in recent and past psychophysiological research by utilizing p-curve analyses. Study protocols and methods were pre-registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF). P-values and the associated test statistics were extracted from articles in the most recent issue (as of January 2018) and 10-year previous counterpart issue of three major psychophysiology journals: Psychophysiology, International Journal of Psychophysiology, and Journal of Psychophysiology. Using the p-curve application, 10 primary p-curves were conducted: all recent articles, all past articles, recent articles split by journal, past articles split by journal, recent cognitive electrophysiology articles, and past cognitive electrophysiology articles. Evidential value and generally adequate average power (≥78% average power) were present in all p-curves, except those that only included articles from the Journal of Psychophysiology because of the small number of articles published in the journal. Findings provide some positive news and indicate that, generally, results were not selectively reported, and selective reporting may not be a primary issue for this sample of psychophysiological research. Future p-curve analyses examining sub-disciplines of psychophysiology are recommended.

Daily dietary decisions have the potential to impact our physical, mental, and emotional health. Event-related potentials (ERPs) can provide insight into cognitive processes, such as attention, working memory, and inhibitory control, that may influence the food-related decisions we make on a daily basis. We conducted a systematic review of the food-related cognition and ERP research in order to summarize the extant literature, identify future research questions, synthesize how food-related ERP components relate to eating habits and appetite, and demonstrate the utility of ERPs in examining food-related cognition. Forty-three articles were systematically extracted. In general, results indicated food cues compared to less palatable foods or neutral cues elicited greater ERP amplitudes reflecting early or late attention allocation (e.g., increased P2, P3, late positive potential amplitudes). Food cues were associated with increased frontocentral P3 and N2 ERP amplitudes compared to neutral or less palatable food cues, suggesting increased recruitment of inhibitory control and conflict monitoring resources. However, there was significant heterogeneity in the literature, as experimental tasks, stimuli, and examined ERP components varied widely across studies, and therefore replication studies are needed. In-depth research is also needed to establish how food-related ERPs differ by BMI groups and relate to real-world eating habits and appetite, in order to establish the ecological validity.

Using a crossover design, 22 normal-weight and 22 obese women completed two free-living sleep conditions: (a) Normal Sleep: night of ~8 hr time in bed; and (b) Reduced Sleep: night of5 hr time in bed). Outcome measures were energy intake, physical activity and sedentary time, and mood. Sleep time was 7.7 ± 0.3 and 4.8 ± 0.2 hrs during the Normal Sleep and Reduced Sleep conditions, respectively (F = 1791.94; p0.0001). Energy intake did not differ between groups or as a function of sleep condition (F = 2.46; p = 0.1244). Sedentary time was ~ 30 min higher after the Reduced Sleep condition (F = 4.98; p = 0.0318); other physical activity outcomes were not different by condition (p0.05). Total mood score, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, and confusion were worse after Reduced Sleep (p0.05). Reducing sleep acutely and negatively influenced sedentary time and mood in normal-weight and obese women.

What do people feel like doing after they have exerted cognitive effort or are bored? Here, we empirically test whether people are drawn to rewards (at the neural level) following cognitive effort and boredom. This elucidates the experiences and consequences of engaging in cognitive effort, and compares it to the consequences of experiencing boredom, an affective state with predicted similar motivational consequences. Event-related potentials were recorded after participants (N = 243) were randomized into one of three conditions – boredom (passively observing strings of numbers), cognitive effort (adding 3 to each digit of a four-digit number), or control. In the subsequent task, we focused on the feedback negativity (FN) to assess the brain's immediate response to the presence or absence of reward. Phenomenologically, participants in the boredom condition reported more fatigue than those in the cognitive effort condition, despite reporting exerting less effort. Results suggest participants in the boredom condition exhibited larger FN amplitude than participants in the control condition, while the cognitive effort condition was neither different from boredom nor control. The neural and methodological implications for ego depletion research, including issues of replicability, are discussed.

Current literature on cognitive functioning in pregnancy and postpartum is mixed, with most research showing deficits in memory and attention during pregnancy or no difference between pregnant participants and controls with little emphasis on the postpartum period. In the current study, we used a longitudinal controlled design and 42 primarily not depressed participants to compare pregnant women in the third trimester and approximately three months postpartum with matched controls over the same time period on neuropsychological domains including memory, attention, learning, visuospatial, and executive functioning. We also evaluated the role of mood and quality of life as potential moderators of cognitive functioning in pregnancy/postpartum. Results indicated no differences between controls and pregnant/postpartum women on neuropsychological measures at any time points. Self-reported memory difficulties, however, were higher in the pregnant/postpartum women. Pregnant and postpartum women had worse self-reported mood and quality of life than controls. Mood and quality of life slightly moderated specific measures of attention and verbal fluency; however, neither mood nor quality of life moderated overall neuropsychological functioning in either group. Number of previous pregnancies had no effect on the study findings. Results suggest differences in subjective memory complaints, but no differences in objective neuropsychological test results between controls and pregnant/postpartum women who are primarily not diagnosed with depression.

The present study examined the clinical correlates of insight among adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). One hundred and thirty treatment-seeking adults with a primary diagnosis of OCD, aged 18 to 68 years (mean 31.4 years) participated. Measures of clinical severity, obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and ability to resist and control OCD symptoms were obtained. Results indicated that poor insight was positively related to greater OCD symptom severity and poorer ability to resist and control OCD symptoms; this pattern of associations held when insight was examined continuously and categorically (i.e., high versus low insight). Insight was generally not associated with other clinical characteristics, except for a relationship with mental neutralizing behaviors. Insight did not mediate the relationship between the ability to resist and control OCD symptoms and obsessive-compulsive symptom severity. Overall, this study provides further information into the nature and role of insight in adults with OCD.

Preliminary research suggests neuropsychological deficits in youth with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) similar to those in adults; however, small samples and methodological confounds limit interpretation. We aimed to examine the rates and clinical correlates of cognitive sequelae in youth with OCD, focusing on executive functioning and memory abilities. Youth ages 7–17 years with OCD ( N =96) completed a hypothesis-driven neuropsychological battery (including the Rey–Osterreith Complex Figure, California Verbal Learning Test, and subtests of the Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System and Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning) that primarily assessed executive functioning, memory and processing speed. Cognitive sequelae were identified in 65% of youth (37% using a more stringent definition of impairment). Magnitude of cognitive sequelae was not associated with OCD severity or age; however, greater neuropsychological impairments were found amongst youth prescribed atypical neuroleptics and those diagnosed with comorbid tic disorders. Comorbidity burden was associated with presence of neuropsychological impairment, but was not specific to any single test. Findings suggest that the presence of cognitive sequelae is prevalent amongst treatment-seeking youth with OCD. Deficits were found in executive functioning and non-verbal memory performance but these impairments were not associated with OCD severity.

Little is known about the functional impact of putative deficits in white-matter connectivity across the corpus callosum (CC) in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). We utilized the temporal sensitivity of event-related potentials to examine the interhemispheric transfer time (IHTT) of basic visual information across the CC in youth with high-functioning ASD relative to healthy controls. We conducted two experiments: a visual letter matching experiment (n = 46) and a visual picture matching experiment, (n = 48) and utilized both electrophysiological (N1 and P1 amplitudes and latencies) and behavioral [response times (RTs), error rates] indices of IHTT. There were no significant group differences on either experiment for RTs, error rates, or N1 and P1 latencies, suggesting that on basic tasks the timing of information flow across the CC may not be altered in high functioning ASD.

Maintaining a healthy diet has important implications for physical and mental health. One factor that may influence diet and food consumption is inhibitory control—the ability to withhold a dominant response in order to correctly respond to environmental demands. We examined how N2 amplitude, an ERP that reflects inhibitory control processes, differed toward high- and low-calorie food stimuli and related to food intake. A total of 159 participants (81 female; M age = 23.5 years; SD = 7.6) completed two food-based go/no-go tasks (one with high-calorie and one with low-calorie food pictures as no-go stimuli) while N2 amplitude was recorded. Participants recorded food intake using the Automated Self-Administered 24-hour Dietary Recall system. Inhibiting responses toward high-calorie stimuli elicited a larger (i.e., more negative) no-go N2 amplitude; inhibiting responses toward low-calorie stimuli elicited a smaller no-go N2 amplitude. Participants were more accurate during the high-calorie than low-calorie task, but took longer to respond on go trials toward high-calorie rather than low-calorie stimuli. When controlling for age, gender, and BMI, larger high-calorie N2 difference amplitude predicted lower caloric intake (β = 0.17); low-calorie N2 difference amplitude was not related to caloric intake (β = −0.03). Exploratory analyses revealed larger high-calorie N2 difference amplitude predicted carbohydrate intake (β = 0.22), but not protein (β = 0.08) or fat (β = 0.11) intake. Results suggest that withholding responses from high-calorie foods requires increased recruitment of inhibitory control processes, which may be necessary to regulate food consumption, particularly for foods high in calories and carbohydrates.

Cognitive control includes higher-level cognitive processes used to evaluate environmental conflict. Given the importance of cognitive control in regulating behavior, understanding the developmental course of these processes may contribute to a greater understanding of normal and abnormal development. We examined behavioral (response times [RTs], error rates) and event-related potential data (N2, error-related negativity [ERN], correct-response negativity [CRN], error positivity [Pe]) during a flanker task in cross-sectional groups of 45 youth (ages 8–18), 52 younger adults (ages 20–28), and 58 older adults (ages 56–91). Younger adults displayed the most efficient processing, including significantly reduced CRN and N2 amplitude, increased Pe amplitude, and significantly better task performance than youth or older adults (e.g., faster RTs, fewer errors). Youth displayed larger CRN and N2, attenuated Pe, and significantly worse task performance than younger adults. Older adults fell either between youth and younger adults (e.g., CRN amplitudes, N2 amplitudes) or displayed neural and behavioral performance that was similar to youth (e.g., Pe amplitudes, error rates). These findings point to underdeveloped neural and cognitive processes early in life and reduced efficiency in older adulthood, contributing to poor implementation and modulation of cognitive control in response to conflict. Thus, cognitive control processing appears to reach peak performance and efficiency in younger adulthood, marked by improved task performance with less neural activation.

Self-reports tend to differ from objective measurements of food intake, particularly in adults with obesity; however, no studies have examined how neural responses to food (an objective measure) and subjective ratings of food differ by BMI status. This study tested normal-weight women (NWW) and women with obesity (OBW) for group differences in neural indices of attention towards food pictures, subjective ratings of these pictures, and the disparity between objective and subjective measurements.Twenty-two NWW (21.8 ± 1.7 kg/mLate positive potential amplitude was larger toward food than flower pictures. OBW self-reported flower pictures as more pleasant than food; NWW showed no difference for pleasantness. There were no significant main effects or interactions for arousal. Standardized scores showed that only on subjective, but not objective, measures did OBW compared with NWW disproportionately indicate food pictures as less pleasant than flowers.Compared with NWW, OBW showed larger discrepancies between neural and subjective reports of attention towards food. Inaccurate self-reports of attention towards food may reduce the efficiency of health interventions.

This study examined the effect of a bout of moderate-to-vigorous (MV) exercise on the neural response to pictures of food (used to index food motivation) in normal-weight and obese women. Secondary outcomes included energy intake and physical activity (PA) over 24 h.Using a crossover design, 18 normal-weight and 17 obese women completed a morning-time, 45-min exercise bout (treadmill at 3.8 mph; 0% grade) and were subsequently followed for 24 h. This was counterbalanced by a control day with no exercise bout. To assess the effect of exercise on food motivation, participants were shown pictures of food and flowers (control) after exercise. Neural activity was concurrently monitored using electroencephalogram for the late positive potential (LPP) component of the event-related potential (ERP) and compared with the LPP response on the nonexercise day. After testing, weighed food records were kept for the duration of each day. PA was monitored, via accelerometry, over each day.There was not a significant body mass index (BMI) group × exercise condition × picture-type interaction for LPP amplitude; however, when participants were pooled, the exercise condition resulted in lower LPP amplitude waveforms in response to food pictures than the nonexercise condition (F = 4.25, P = 0.048). There were no differences in energy or macronutrient intake (P0.05). The exercise condition resulted in significantly more PA than the nonexercise condition, and there was a significant BMI group × exercise condition interaction for MV PA (F = 4.48, P = 0.043) with obese women showing less MV PA.A bout of MV exercise decreases neurologically determined food motivation (i.e., the LPP event-related potential), but the effect of BMI is unclear. In addition, a morning-time exercise bout significantly increases 24-h PA; 24-h MV PA differed according to BMI.

This study examined differences in clinical presentation and functional impairment in youth with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) with or without comorbid depressive disorders and sought to determine the predictors of youth-reported depressive symptoms. One-hundred and sixty youth were reliably diagnosed with OCD and comorbid disorders using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Parent version (Silverman and Albano, 1996) and confirmed by an experienced clinician. Sixteen percent (n = 25) had a comorbid diagnosis of a current depressive disorder (DD). Significantly more females than males had a DD. Those with a DD showed increased OCD symptom severity, OCD-related functional impairment, and family accommodation relative to those without a comorbid DD. Depressive symptoms were significantly positively correlated with years of age, degree of OCD symptom severity, measures of OCD-related functional impairment, and non-OCD anxiety symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that age, gender, functional impairment, and non-OCD anxiety were significant predictors of depressive symptoms, even when OCD symptom severity was controlled. Notably, functional impairment was a partial mediator of the relationship between OCD symptom severity and depression levels, suggesting depression levels are the product of both degree of symptoms and amount of day-to-day impairment. Results are discussed in terms of implications for assessment and treatment.

This study examines correlates of hoarding behaviors among nonclinical elderly adults, focusing upon hoarding cognitions, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and measures of general psychopathology. Two hundred and sixty-nine adults aged 56-93 years (M=72.49 years) completed the Saving Inventory-Revised, Savings Cognitions Inventory-Revised, Obsessive Compulsive Inventory-Revised, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, Penn State Worry Questionnaire, and Beck Depression Inventory. Our geriatric sample evidenced significantly greater severity of hoarding behaviors than did a younger community sample (24-72 years; M=44.4 years; Frost, Steketee, & Grishman, 2004). Within our sample, moderate correlations were found between hoarding behaviors and hoarding cognitions; however, controlling for obsessive-compulsive and depressive symptoms resulted in reduced-magnitude associations. As well, relationships between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and both hoarding behaviors and hoarding cognitions were generally strong, with most relationships diminishing after controlling for depressive symptoms. Associations between hoarding symptoms and symptoms of social anxiety, general worry, and depression were generally moderate. A significant regression model showed depressive symptoms explaining the most unique variance in hoarding behaviors. Findings confirm a relatively greater severity of hoarding behaviors in older adults (as compared to younger adults) and suggest that related psychopathology plays a critical role in hoarding expression among older adults. As well, the current study contributes to the ongoing investigation of the diagnostic categorization of compulsive hoarding.

Continuous monitoring of one's performance is invaluable for guiding behavior towards successful goal attainment by identifying deficits and strategically adjusting responses when performance is inadequate. In the present study, we exploited the advantages of event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine brain activity associated with error-related processing after severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI). fMRI and behavioral data were acquired while 10 sTBI participants and 12 neurologically-healthy controls performed a task-switching cued-Stroop task. fMRI data were analyzed using a random-effects whole-brain voxel-wise general linear model and planned linear contrasts. Behaviorally, sTBI patients showed greater error-rate interference than neurologically-normal controls. fMRI data revealed that, compared to controls, sTBI patients showed greater magnitude error-related activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and an increase in the overall spatial extent of error-related activation across cortical and subcortical regions. Implications for future research and potential limitations in conducting fMRI research in neurologically-impaired populations are discussed, as well as some potential benefits of employing multimodal imaging (e.g., fMRI and event-related potentials) of cognitive control processes in TBI.

Evidence from behavioral and neuroimaging studies suggest that atypical amygdala function plays a critical role in the development of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The handful of psychophysiological studies examining amygdala function in ASD using classical fear conditioning paradigms have yielded discordant results. We recorded skin conductance response (SCR) during a simple discrimination conditioning task in 30 children and adolescents (ages 8-18) diagnosed with high-functioning ASD and 30 age- and IQ-matched, typically developing controls. SCR response in the ASD group was uniquely and positively associated with social anxiety; and negatively correlated with autism symptom severity, in particular with social functioning. Fear conditioning studies have tremendous potential to aid understanding regarding the amygdale's role in the varied symptom profile of ASD. Our data demonstrate that such studies require careful attention to task-specific factors, including task complexity; and also to contributions of dimensional, within-group factors that contribute to ASD heterogeneity.

Individuals with high-functioning autism often display deficits in social interactions and high-level cognitive functions. Such deficits may be influenced by poor ability to process feedback and rewards. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) is an event-related potential (ERP) that is more negative following losses than gains. We examined FRN amplitude in 25 individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and 25 age- and IQ-matched typically developing control participants who completed a guessing task with monetary loss/gain feedback. Both groups demonstrated a robust FRN that was more negative to loss trials than gain trials; however, groups did not differ in FRN amplitude as a function of gain or loss trials. N1 and P300 amplitudes did not differentiate groups. FRN amplitude was positively correlated with age in individuals with ASD, but not measures of intelligence, anxiety, behavioral inhibition, or autism severity. Given previous findings of reduced-amplitude error-related negativity (ERN) in ASD, we propose that individuals with ASD may process external, concrete, feedback similar to typically developing individuals, but have difficulty with internal, more abstract, regulation of performance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate sex differences in cognitive control as measured by the stimulus-locked N2 component of the event-related potential (ERP). High-density ERPs were obtained from 114 healthy individuals (60 females, 54 males) who completed a modified Eriksen Flanker Task. Behavioral measures (i.e., error rates, reaction times) and N2 amplitudes were analyzed. On the flanker task, females responded significantly slower and committed more errors than males. For N2 amplitude, there was a significant main effect of congruency, with increased amplitude to incongruent trials. Importantly, sexes differed as a function of congruency, with males showing significantly larger incongruent N2 amplitudes than females. Sex differences in N2 amplitude remained in a subgroup of participants that did not differ for behavioral, demographic, and affective variables. No sex differences were shown for electrophysiological or behavioral indices of conflict adaptation. Results indicate sex differences in brain activation associated with conflict monitoring. Findings may be explained by two contradictory possibilities: (1) females more effectively monitor conflict as indicated by less neural activation than males for similar behavioral performance in a matched subsample, or, (2) females less effectively monitor conflict than males.

We tested competing hypotheses for sex differences in performance monitoring using the error-related negativity and the posterror positivity components of the event-related potential (ERP). High-density ERPs were acquired while 100 female and 98 male partcipants completed a flanker task. Sexes did not differ in accuracy or posterror slowing, although females showed longer overall response times. Males showed increased amplitude error-related negativity and posterror positivity components relative to females; sexes did not differ on correct-trial ERPs. Sex differences remained in subgroups matched for depression and anxiety levels. Results indicate that participant sex should be considered in understanding the cognitive and emotional correlates of performance monitoring.

The primary purposes of this study were to determine if controls, and mild and moderate/severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients performed differently on a battery of executive functioning (EF) tests, and to identify the operating characteristics of EF tests in this population. Participants consisted of 46 brain-injured individuals and 24 healthy controls. All participants completed an extensive battery of EF tests. Results showed that mild TBI participants performed worse than controls on the Trail Making Test Part B, and that moderate/severe TBI participants consistently performed worse than either group on a variety of EF measures. Tests of EF exhibited a wide range of operating characteristics, suggesting that some EF tests are better than others in identifying TBI-related neurocognitive impairment. Predictive values were better for individuals with moderate/severe TBI than mild TBI. Overall, the Digit Span Backward Test showed the best positive predictive power in differentiating TBI. Our results provide useful data that may guide test selection in evaluating EF in patients with traumatic brain injury.