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OBJECTIVE(S): To understand how contraception method use differed between women prescribed and not prescribed medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) among commercially-insured and Medicaid insured women. STUDY DESIGN: IBM Watson Health MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters database and the Multi-State Medicaid database were used to calculate the (1) crude prevalence, and (2) adjusted odds ratios (adjusted for demographic characteristics) of using long-acting reversible or short-acting hormonal contraception methods or female sterilization compared with none of these methods (no method) in 2018 by MOUD status among women with OUD, aged 20 to 49 years, with continuous health insurance coverage through commercial insurance or Medicaid for ≥6 years. Claims data was used to define contraception use. Fisher exact test or χ(2) test with a P-value ≤ 0.0001, based on the Holm-Bonferroni method, and 95% confidence intervals were used to determine statistically significant differences for prevalence estimates and adjusted odds ratios, respectively. RESULTS: Only 41% of commercially-insured and Medicaid-insured women with OUD were prescribed MOUD. Medicaid-insured women with OUD prescribed MOUD had a significantly lower crude prevalence of using no method (71.1% vs 79.0%) and higher odds of using female sterilization (aOR, 1.33; 95% CI: 1.06–1.67 vs no method) than those not prescribed MOUD. Among commercially-insured women there were no differences in contraceptive use by MOUD status and 66% used no method. CONCLUSIONS: Among women with ≥ 6 years of continuous insurance coverage, contraceptive use differed by MOUD status and insurance. Prescribing MOUD for women with OUD can be improved to ensure quality care. IMPLICATIONS: : Only two in five women with OUD had evidence of being prescribed MOUD, and majority did not use prescription contraception or female sterilization. Our findings support opportunities to improve prescribing for MOUD and integrate contraception and MOUD services to improve clinical care among women with OUD.

CDC conducts abortion surveillance to document the number and characteristics of women obtaining legal induced abortions and number of abortion-related deaths in the United States.2020.Each year, CDC requests abortion data from the central health agencies for the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and New York City. For 2020, a total of 49 reporting areas voluntarily provided aggregate abortion data to CDC. Of these, 48 reporting areas provided data each year during 2011-2020. Census and natality data were used to calculate abortion rates (number of abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years) and ratios (number of abortions per 1,000 live births), respectively. Abortion-related deaths from 2019 were assessed as part of CDC's Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System (PMSS).A total of 620,327 abortions for 2020 were reported to CDC from 49 reporting areas. Among 48 reporting areas with data each year during 2011-2020, in 2020, a total of 615,911 abortions were reported, the abortion rate was 11.2 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years, and the abortion ratio was 198 abortions per 1,000 live births. From 2019 to 2020, the total number of abortions decreased 2% (from 625,346 total abortions), the abortion rate decreased 2% (from 11.4 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years), and the abortion ratio increased 2% (from 195 abortions per 1,000 live births). From 2011 to 2020, the total number of reported abortions decreased 15% (from 727,554), the abortion rate decreased 18% (from 13.7 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years), and the abortion ratio decreased 9% (from 217 abortions per 1,000 live births).In 2020, women in their 20s accounted for more than half of abortions (57.2%). Women aged 20-24 and 25-29 years accounted for the highest percentages of abortions (27.9% and 29.3%, respectively) and had the highest abortion rates (19.2 and 19.0 abortions per 1,000 women aged 20-24 and 25-29 years, respectively). By contrast, adolescents aged15 years and women aged ≥40 years accounted for the lowest percentages of abortions (0.2% and 3.7%, respectively) and had the lowest abortion rates (0.4 and 2.6 abortions per 1,000 women aged15 and ≥40 years, respectively). However, abortion ratios were highest among adolescents (aged ≤19 years) and lowest among women aged 25-39 years.Abortion rates decreased from 2011 to 2020 among all age groups. The decrease in abortion rate was highest among adolescents compared with any other age group. From 2019 to 2020, abortion rates decreased or did not change for all age groups. Abortion ratios decreased from 2011 to 2020 for all age groups, except adolescents aged 15-19 years and women aged 25-29 years for whom abortion ratios increased. The decrease in abortion ratio was highest among women aged ≥40 years compared with any other age group. From 2019 to 2020, abortion ratios decreased for adolescents aged15 years and women aged ≥35 and increased for women 15-34 years.In 2020, 80.9% of abortions were performed at ≤9 weeks' gestation, and nearly all (93.1%) were performed at ≤13 weeks' gestation. During 2011-2020, the percentage of abortions performed at13 weeks' gestation remained consistently low (≤9.2%). In 2020, the highest percentage of abortions were performed by early medical abortion at ≤9 weeks' gestation (51.0%), followed by surgical abortion at ≤13 weeks' gestation (40.0%), surgical abortion at13 weeks' gestation (6.7%), and medical abortion at9 weeks' gestation (2.4%); all other methods were uncommon (0.1%). Among those that were eligible (≤9 weeks' gestation), 63.9% of abortions were early medical abortions. In 2019, the most recent year for which PMSS data were reviewed for pregnancy-related deaths, four women died as a result of complications from legal induced abortion.Among the 48 areas that reported data continuously during 2011-2020, overall decreases were observed during 2011-2020 in the total number, rate, and ratio of reported abortions. From 2019 to 2020, decreases also were observed in the total number and rate of reported abortions; however, a 2% increase was observed in the total abortion ratio.Abortion surveillance can be used to help evaluate programs aimed at promoting equitable access to patient-centered quality contraceptive services in the United States to reduce unintended pregnancies.

Problem/Condition CDC conducts abortion surveillance to document the number and characteristics of women obtaining legal induced abortions and number of abortion-related deaths in the United States. Period Covered 2019. Description of System Each year, CDC requests abortion data from the central health agencies for 50 states, the District of Columbia, and New York City. For 2019, 49 reporting areas voluntarily provided aggregate abortion data to CDC. Of these, 48 reporting areas provided data each year during 2010–2019. Census and natality data were used to calculate abortion rates (number of abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years) and ratios (number of abortions per 1,000 live births), respectively. Abortion-related deaths from 2018 were assessed as part of CDC’s Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System (PMSS). Results A total of 629,898 abortions for 2019 were reported to CDC from 49 reporting areas. Among 48 reporting areas with data each year during 2010–2019, in 2019, a total of 625,346 abortions were reported, the abortion rate was 11.4 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years, and the abortion ratio was 195 abortions per 1,000 live births. From 2018 to 2019, the total number of abortions increased 2% (from 614,820 total abortions), the abortion rate increased 0.9% (from 11.3 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years), and the abortion ratio increased 3% (from 189 abortions per 1,000 live births). From 2010 to 2019, the total number of reported abortions, abortion rate, and abortion ratio decreased 18% (from 762,755), 21% (from 14.4 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years), and 13% (from 225 abortions per 1,000 live births), respectively. In 2019, women in their 20s accounted for more than half of abortions (56.9%). Women aged 20–24 and 25–29 years accounted for the highest percentages of abortions (27.6% and 29.3%, respectively) and had the highest abortion rates (19.0 and 18.6 abortions per 1,000 women aged 20–24 and 25–29 years, respectively). By contrast, adolescents aged 13 weeks’ gestation remained consistently low (≤9.0%). In 2019, the highest proportion of abortions were performed by surgical abortion at ≤13 weeks’ gestation (49.0%), followed by early medical abortion at ≤9 weeks’ gestation (42.3%), surgical abortion at >13 weeks’ gestation (7.2%), and medical abortion at >9 weeks’ gestation (1.4%); all other methods were uncommon (

Purpose Among U.S. primary care physicians who delivered sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services to adolescents before the COVID-19 pandemic, we examine (1) changes in availability of in-person SRH services; (2) changes in accessibility and utilization of SRH services; and (3) use of strategies to support provision of SRH services during the pandemic. Methods Data were from the DocStyles provider survey administered September–October 2020. Descriptive analyses were restricted to family practitioners, internists, and pediatricians whose main work setting was outpatient and whose practice provided family planning or sexually transmitted infection services to ≥ one patient aged 15–19 years per week just before the COVID-19 pandemic (n = 791). Results Among physicians whose practices provided intrauterine device/implant placement/removal or clinic-based sexually transmitted infection testing before the COVID-19 pandemic, 51% and 36% indicated disruption of these services during the pandemic, respectively. Some physicians also reported reductions in walk-in hours (38%), evening/weekend hours (31%), and adolescents seeking care (43%) in the past month. At any point during the pandemic, 61% provided contraception initiation/continuation and 44% provided sexually transmitted infection services via telehealth. Among these physicians, about one-quarter reported confidentiality concerns with telehealth in the past month. There were small increases or no changes in other strategies to support contraceptive care. Conclusions Findings suggest disruption of certain SRH services and issues with access because of the pandemic among primary care providers who serve adolescents. There are opportunities to enhance implementation of confidential telehealth services and other service delivery strategies that could help promote adolescent SRH in the United States.

Ensuring access to contraceptive services is an important strategy for preventing unintended pregnancies, which account for nearly one half of all U.S. pregnancies (1) and are associated with adverse maternal and infant health outcomes (2). Equitable, person-centered contraceptive access is also important to ensure reproductive autonomy (3). Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data collected during 2017-2019 were used to estimate the proportion of women aged 18-49 years who were at risk for unintended pregnancy* and had ongoing or potential need for contraceptive services.† During 2017-2019, in the 45 jurisdictions§ from which data were collected, 76.2% of women aged 18-49 years were considered to be at risk for unintended pregnancy, ranging from 67.0% (Alaska) to 84.6% (Georgia); 60.7% of women had ongoing or potential need for contraceptive services, ranging from 45.3% (Puerto Rico) to 73.7% (New York). For all jurisdictions combined, the proportion of women who were at risk for unintended pregnancy and had ongoing or potential need for contraceptive services varied significantly by age group, race/ethnicity, and urban-rural status. Among women with ongoing or potential need for contraceptive services, 15.2% used a long-acting reversible method (intrauterine device or contraceptive implant), 25.0% used a short-acting reversible method (injectable, pill, transdermal patch, or vaginal ring), and 29.5% used a barrier or other reversible method (diaphragm, condom, withdrawal, cervical cap, sponge, spermicide, fertility-awareness-based method, or emergency contraception). In addition, 30.3% of women with ongoing or potential need were not using any method of contraception. Data in this report can be used to help guide jurisdictional planning to deliver contraceptive services, reduce unintended pregnancies, ensure that the contraceptive needs of women and their partners are met, and evaluate efforts to increase access to contraception.

U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use (U.S. SPR), adapted by CDC from global guidance developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), provides evidence-based guidance on contraceptive use for U.S. health care providers (1). During January-February, 2021, CDC evaluated the 2019 WHO recommendation on self-administered subcutaneous depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA-SC) (2). CDC adopted the WHO recommendation on the basis of moderate-certainty evidence that self-administered DMPA-SC is safe and effective, and has higher continuation rates compared with provider-administered DMPA. The new U.S. SPR recommendation states that self-administered DMPA-SC should be made available as an additional approach to deliver injectable contraception. Provider-administered DMPA should remain available. Self-administered DMPA-SC is a user-controlled method that has the potential to improve contraceptive access and increase reproductive autonomy. Self-administered DMPA-SC should be offered in a noncoercive manner through a shared decision-making process between patients and their health care providers, with a focus on patient preferences and equitable access to the full range of contraceptive methods.

In 2010, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released the U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, providing recommendations for health care providers on safe use of contraception for people with certain characteristics or medical conditions. Adapted from World Health Organization guidance, the goal of the recommendations is to remove unnecessary medical barriers to contraception. Over the past decade, CDC has updated recommendations based on new evidence, collaborated with national partners to disseminate and implement the guidelines, and conducted provider surveys to assess changes in attitudes and practices around contraception safety and provision. CDC remains committed to supporting evidence-based guidelines for safe use of contraception, as the basis for improving access to contraception and high-quality family planning services, reducing unintended pregnancy, and improving reproductive health in the United States.

Problem/Condition CDC conducts abortion surveillance to document the number and characteristics of women obtaining legal induced abortions and number of abortion-related deaths in the United States. Period Covered 2018. Description of System Each year, CDC requests abortion data from the central health agencies for 50 states, the District of Columbia, and New York City. For 2018, 49 reporting areas voluntarily provided aggregate abortion data to CDC. Of these, 48 reporting areas provided data each year during 2009–2018. Census and natality data were used to calculate abortion rates (number of abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years) and ratios (number of abortions per 1,000 live births), respectively. Abortion-related deaths from 2017 were assessed as part of CDC’s Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System (PMSS). Results A total of 619,591 abortions for 2018 were reported to CDC from 49 reporting areas. Among 48 reporting areas with data each year during 2009–2018, in 2018, a total of 614,820 abortions were reported, the abortion rate was 11.3 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years, and the abortion ratio was 189 abortions per 1,000 live births. From 2017 to 2018, the total number of abortions and abortion rate increased 1% (from 609,095 total abortions and from 11.2 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years, respectively), and the abortion ratio increased 2% (from 185 abortions per 1,000 live births). From 2009 to 2018, the total number of reported abortions, abortion rate, and abortion ratio decreased 22% (from 786,621), 24% (from 14.9 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–44 years), and 16% (from 224 abortions per 1,000 live births), respectively. In 2018, women in their 20s accounted for more than half of abortions (57.7%). In 2018 and during 2009–2018, women aged 20–24 and 25–29 years accounted for the highest percentages of abortions; in 2018, they accounted for 28.3% and 29.4% of abortions, respectively, and had the highest abortion rates (19.1 and 18.5 per 1,000 women aged 20–24 and 25–29 years, respectively). By contrast, adolescents aged 13 weeks’ gestation remained consistently low (≤9.0%). In 2018, the highest proportion of abortions were performed by surgical abortion at ≤13 weeks’ gestation (52.1%), followed by early medical abortion at ≤9 weeks’ gestation (38.6%), surgical abortion at >13 weeks’ gestation (7.8%), and medical abortion at >9 weeks’ gestation (1.4%); all other methods were uncommon (

Objective The Zika Contraception Access Network (Z-CAN) provided women in Puerto Rico access to contraceptive counseling and the full range of reversible contraceptive methods, on the same day and at no cost, during the Zika virus outbreak. Because trained physicians and clinic staff were crucial to the program, we aimed to assess the implementation of and satisfaction with Z-CAN from their perspectives. Study design Physicians and clinic staff in the Z-CAN program participated in an online survey on program implementation (e.g., on-site and same-day contraceptive provision), program satisfaction, and knowledge consistent with program training (e.g., contraceptive initiation and safety, client-centered contraceptive counseling, intrauterine device [IUD] and implant insertion and removal). Results Survey respondents included 63 physicians and 53 clinic staff members. A high proportion of physicians (>93%) reported providing IUDs, implants, pills, rings, condoms, and injections and most were very often or always able to provide same-day access to most methods. Over 90% of physicians were satisfied with the Z-CAN program, training, and ongoing support. Staff satisfaction with these program elements was similar but slightly lower. Knowledge about exams and tests needed for initiation and safety of methods varied but was generally consistent with guidelines on which physicians received training. Most physicians (>90%) reported confidence in skills on which they received training as part of the program. Conclusions From the perspectives of participating physicians and clinic staff, the program was generally implemented as intended and providers were largely satisfied with program strategies including training and on-going support. Implications Certain key components of the Z-CAN program, such as training, proctoring, and involvement of clinic staff were likely critical to Z-CAN’s implementation and provider satisfaction. Results from this provider survey can inform implementation of similar efforts to increase access to contraception in both emergency and non-emergency settings.

"U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use" (U.S. MEC) 2016 provides evidence-based guidance for the safe use of contraceptive methods among U.S. women with certain characteristics or medical conditions (1). The U.S. MEC is adapted from global guidance from the World Health Organization (WHO) and kept up to date through continual review of published literature (1). CDC recently evaluated the evidence and the updated WHO guidance on the risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquisition among women using hormonal contraception and intrauterine devices (IUDs) (2). After careful review, CDC adopted WHO's 2019 updated guidance for inclusion in the U.S. MEC guidance; CDC's updated guidance states that progestin-only injectable contraception (including depot medroxyprogesterone acetate [DMPA]) and IUDs (including levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-bearing) are safe for use without restriction among women at high risk for HIV infection (U.S. MEC category 1 [previously U.S. MEC category 2, advantages outweigh risks]) (Box). CDC's guidance also adds an accompanying clarification for women who wish to use IUDs, which states "Many women at a high risk for HIV infection are also at risk for other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). For these women, refer to the recommendations in the 'U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use' for women with other factors related to STDs, and the 'U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use' on STD screening before IUD insertion" (1,3). Recommendations for other hormonal contraceptive methods (including combined hormonal methods, implants, and progestin-only pills) remain the same; there is also no restriction for their use among women at high risk for HIV infection (U.S. MEC category 1). Finally, CDC clarified that the U.S. MEC recommendations for concurrent use of hormonal contraceptives or IUDs and antiretroviral use for treatment of HIV infection also apply to use of antiretrovirals for prevention of HIV acquisition (preexposure prophylaxis [PrEP]).

Objective To systematically review the literature around the safety and effectiveness of hormonal contraception for women who use opioids. Our specific research questions are: 1) Among women who use opioids, do those who use hormonal contraception have increased adverse health events compared with those who do not use hormonal contraception? 2) Are there drug interactions between hormonal contraception and opioids that cause decreased effectiveness or increased toxicity from either drug? Methods We searched Medline, Embase, PsychInfo, CINAHL, the Cochrane Library, and clinicaltrials.gov through August 2018. We considered randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and case–control studies, as well as pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies. We planned to use standard frameworks to assess risk of bias of included studies. Results The search identified 1852 articles. The full text of 66 articles was reviewed, and none met inclusion criteria. Conclusions Because we found no direct evidence on the safety and effectiveness of hormonal contraception for women who use opioids, we considered theoretical concerns. While women with OUD have a high prevalence of co-morbidities, such as viral hepatitis, generally women with medical conditions can safely use most contraceptive methods. When considering the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of hormonal contraception and opioids, there is little theoretical concern for interactions. Therefore, future research efforts could focus on improving access to the full range of contraceptive methods for women who use opioids, reducing unnecessary barriers to initiating and using contraception, while ensuring voluntary choice related to contraceptive use.

Since 1969, CDC has conducted abortion surveillance to document the number and characteristics of women obtaining legal induced abortions in the United States.2016.Each year, CDC requests abortion data from the central health agencies of 52 reporting areas (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and New York City). The reporting areas provide this information voluntarily. For 2016, data were received from 48 reporting areas. Abortion data provided by these 48 reporting areas for each year during 2007-2016 were used in trend analyses. Census and natality data were used to calculate abortion rates (number of abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years) and ratios (number of abortions per 1,000 live births), respectively.A total of 623,471 abortions for 2016 were reported to CDC from 48 reporting areas. Among these 48 reporting areas, the abortion rate for 2016 was 11.6 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years, and the abortion ratio was 186 abortions per 1,000 live births. From 2015 to 2016, the total number of reported abortions decreased 2% (from 636,902), the abortion rate decreased 2% (from 11.8 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years), and the abortion ratio decreased 1% (from 188 abortions per 1,000 live births). From 2007 to 2016, the total number of reported abortions decreased 24% (from 825,240), the abortion rate decreased 26% (from 15.6 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years), and the abortion ratio decreased 18% (from 226 abortions per 1,000 live births). In 2016, all three measures reached their lowest level for the entire period of analysis (2007-2016). In 2016 and throughout the period of analysis, women in their 20s accounted for the majority of abortions and had the highest abortion rates. In 2016, women aged 20-24 and 25-29 years accounted for 30.0% and 28.5% of all reported abortions, respectively, and had abortion rates of 19.1 and 17.8 abortions per 1,000 women aged 20-24 and 25-29 years, respectively. By contrast, women aged 30-34, 35-39, and ≥40 years accounted for 18.0%, 10.3%, and 3.5% of all reported abortions, respectively, and had abortion rates of 11.6, 6.9, and 2.5 abortions per 1,000 women aged 30-34, 35-39, and ≥40 years, respectively. From 2007 to 2016, the abortion rate decreased among women in all age groups. In 2016, adolescents aged15 and 15-19 years accounted for 0.3% and 9.4% of all reported abortions, respectively, and had abortion rates of 0.4 and 6.2 abortions per 1,000 adolescents aged15 and 15-19 years, respectively. From 2007 to 2016, the percentage of abortions accounted for by adolescents aged 15-19 years decreased 43%, and the abortion rate decreased 56%. This decrease in abortion rate was greater than the decreases for women in any older age group. In contrast to the percentage distribution of abortions and abortion rates by age, abortion ratios in 2016 and throughout the entire period of analysis were highest among adolescents and lowest among women aged 25-39 years. Abortion ratios decreased from 2007 to 2016 for women in all age groups. In 2016, almost two-thirds (65.5%) of abortions were performed at ≤8 weeks' gestation, and nearly all (91.0%) were performed at ≤13 weeks' gestation. Fewer abortions were performed between 14 and 20 weeks' gestation (7.7%) or at ≥21 weeks' gestation (1.2%). During 2007-2016, the percentage of abortions performed at13 weeks' gestation remained consistently low (8.2%-9.0%). Among abortions performed at ≤13 weeks' gestation, the percentage distributions of abortions by gestational age were highest among those performed at ≤6 weeks' gestation (35.0%-38.4%). In 2016, 27.9% of all abortions were performed by early medical abortion (a nonsurgical abortion at ≤8 weeks' gestation), 59.9% were performed by surgical abortion at ≤13 weeks' gestation, 8.8% were performed by surgical abortion at13 weeks' gestation, and 3.4% were performed by medical abortion at8 weeks' gestation; all other methods were uncommon (0.1%). Among those that were eligible for early medical abortion on the basis of gestational age (i.e., performed at ≤8 weeks' gestation), 41.9% were completed by this method. In 2016, women with one or more previous live births accounted for 59.0% of abortions, and women with no previous live births accounted for 41.0%. Women with one or more previous induced abortions accounted for 43.1% of abortions, and women with no previous abortions accounted for 56.9%. Deaths of women associated with complications from abortion are assessed as part of CDC's Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System. In 2015, the most recent year for which data were reviewed for abortion-related deaths, two women were identified to have died as a result of complications from legal induced abortion and for one additional death, it was unknown whether the abortion was induced or spontaneous.Among the 48 areas that reported data every year during 2007-2016, decreases in the total number, rate, and ratio of reported abortions resulted in historic lows for the period of analysis for all three measures of abortion.The data in this report can help program planners and policymakers identify groups of women with the highest rates of abortion. Unintended pregnancy is the major contributor to induced abortion. Increasing access to and use of effective contraception can reduce unintended pregnancies and further reduce the number of abortions performed in the United States.

Study Objective To identify characteristics associated with provider attitudes on the safety of “Quick Start” initiation of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) for adolescents. Design, Setting, Participants, Interventions, and Main Outcome Measures We conducted a cross-sectional survey of providers in public-sector health centers and office-based physicians (n = 2056) during 2013-2014. Results Overall, the prevalence of considering “Quick Start” initiation of LARC for adolescents as safe was 70.9% for implants and 64.5% for intrauterine devices (IUDs). Among public-sector providers, those not trained in implant or IUD insertion had lower odds of perceiving the practice safe (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.32; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.25-0.41 for implants; aOR 0.42; 95% CI, 0.32-0.55 for IUDs), whereas those practicing at health centers that did not receive Title X funding had lower odds of perceiving the practice safe for IUDs (aOR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.61-0.98). Among office-based physicians, lack of training in LARC insertion was associated with lower odds of perceiving “Quick Start” initiation to be safe for IUDs (aOR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.12-0.77). Those specializing in adolescent medicine had higher odds of reporting “Quick Start” initiation of LARC as safe (implants: aOR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.23-3.98; IUDs: aOR, 3.37; 95% CI, 1.39-8.21) compared with obstetrician-gynecologists. Conclusion Approximately two-thirds of providers considered “Quick Start” initiation of LARC for adolescents safe; however, there were differences according to provider characteristics (eg, Title X funding, training in LARC insertion, specialty). Targeted LARC insertion training and dissemination of evidence-based family planning guidance and implementation into facility and practice-level policies might increase access to “Quick Start” initiation of LARC for adolescents.

Equitable access to contraception is critical for reproductive autonomy. Using cross-sectional data from the DocStyles survey administered September-October 2020 (68% response rate), we compared changes in family planning-related clinical services and healthcare delivery strategies before and during the COVID-19 pandemic and assessed service provision issues among 1063 U.S. physicians whose practice provided family planning services just before the pandemic. About one-fifth of those whose practices provided the following services or strategies just before the pandemic discontinued these services during the pandemic: long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) placement (16%); LARC removal (17%); providing or prescribing emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs) in advance (18%); and reminding patients about contraception injections or LARC removal or replacement (20%). Many practices not providing the following services or strategies just before the pandemic initiated these services during the pandemic: telehealth for contraception initiation (43%); telehealth for contraception continuation (48%); and renewing contraception prescriptions without requiring an office visit (36%). While a smaller proportion of physicians reported service provision issues in the month before survey completion than at any point during the pandemic, about one-third still reported fewer adult females seeking care (37%) and technical challenges with telehealth (32%). Discontinuation of key family planning services during the COVID-19 pandemic may limit contraception access and impede reproductive autonomy. Implementing healthcare service delivery strategies that reduce the need for in-person visits (e.g., telehealth for contraception, providing or prescribing ECPs in advance) may decrease disruptions in care. Resources exist for public health and clinical efforts to ensure contraception access during the pandemic.

Objective(s) We estimated the prevalence of requiring specific examinations or tests before providing contraception in a nationwide survey of family planning providers. Study Design We conducted a cross-sectional survey of public-sector health centers and office-based physicians providing family planning services across the United States in 2019 (n = 1395). We estimated the weighted proportion of providers (or their health center or practice) who required blood pressure measurement, pelvic examination (bimanual examination and cervical inspection), Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, clinical breast examination (CBE), and chlamydia and gonorrhea (CT/GC) screening before initiating hormonal or intrauterine contraception (IUC) for healthy women. We performed multivariable regression to identify factors associated with pelvic examination practices aligned with clinical recommendations; these recommendations classify examinations and tests as recommended or unnecessary before initiation of specific contraceptive methods. Results The overall response rate was 51%. Most providers required blood pressure measurement before initiating each method. Unnecessary CBE, Pap smears, and CT/GC screening were required by 14% to 33% of providers across methods. Fifty-two to 62% of providers required recommended pelvic examination before IUC placement; however, 16% to 23% of providers required unnecessary pelvic examinations before non-intrauterine hormonal method initiation. Factors associated with recommendation-aligned pelvic examination practices included having a higher proportion of patients using public funding (Medicaid or other assistance) and more recently completing formal clinical training. Conclusions Almost half (47%) of providers did not require necessary pelvic examination before placing IUC. Conversely, many providers required unnecessary examinations and tests before contraception initiation for patients. Implications Most providers required the few recommended examinations and tests for safe contraceptive provision. Reduction of unnecessary examinations and tests may reduce barriers to contraceptive access. There are also opportunities to increase use of recommended examinations, as up to 48% of providers did not require recommended pelvic examination before IUC.

Objective Increasingly, states authorize pharmacists to prescribe hormonal contraception to patients without a prescription from another healthcare provider. The purpose of this review is to investigate pharmacist and patient perspectives on pharmacist-prescribed contraception in the United States. Study design We searched Medline, Embase, PsycInfo, CINAHL, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library from inception through July 10, 2019. We included qualitative and mixed-methods studies, quantitative surveys, observational studies, and randomized trials in the United States. Risk of bias was assessed using tools for quantitative and qualitative studies. Results Fifteen studies met inclusion criteria, including studies on pharmacists and student pharmacists (n = 9), patients (n = 5), and both (n = 1). Study samples ranged from local to national. Studies had moderate to high risk of bias, primarily due to low response rates and lack of validated instruments. Most pharmacists (57–96%) across four studies were interested in participating in pharmacist-prescribed contraception services. Among patients, 63–97% across three studies supported pharmacist-prescribed contraception, and 38–68% across four studies intended to participate in these services. At least half of pharmacists across four studies felt comfortable prescribing contraception, though pharmacists identified additional training needs. Pharmacists and patients identified several reasons for interest in pharmacist-prescribed contraception services, including increasing patient access, reducing unintended pregnancies, and offering professional development for pharmacists. They also identified barriers, including payment, time and resource constraints, liability, and patient health concerns. Conclusions Most pharmacists and patients across 15 studies were interested in expanded access to contraception through pharmacist-prescribed contraception. Findings on facilitators and barriers may inform implementation efforts. Implications Pharmacist-prescribed contraception is a strategy to expand patient access to contraception. Reducing barriers to implementation could improve participation among pharmacists and patients.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate expulsion rates among women with postpartum intrauterine device (IUD) placement by timing of insertion, IUD type, and delivery method. DATA SOURCES: We searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov from 1974 to May 2018. METHODS OF STUDY SELECTION: We searched databases for any published studies that examined post-partum placement of a copper IUD or levonorgestrel intrauterine system and reported counts of expulsions. We assessed study quality using the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force evidence grading system. We calculated pooled absolute rates of IUD expulsion and estimated adjusted relative risks (RRs) for timing of postpartum placement, delivery method, and IUD type using log-binomial multivariable regression model. TABULATION, INTEGRATION, AND RESULTS: We identified 48 level I to II-3 studies of poor to good quality. Pooled rates of expulsion varied by timing of IUD placement, ranging from 1.9% with interval placements (4 weeks postpartum or greater), 10.0% for immediate placements (10 minutes or less after placental delivery), and 29.7% for early placements (greater than 10 minutes to less than 4 weeks postpartum). Immediate and early postpartum placements were associated with increased risk of expulsion compared with interval placement (adjusted RR 7.63, 95% CI 4.31–13.51; adjusted RR 6.17, 95% CI 3.19–11.93, respectively). Postpartum placement less than 4 weeks after vaginal delivery was associated with an increased risk of expulsion compared with cesarean delivery (adjusted RR 5.19, 95% CI 3.85–6.99). Analysis of expulsion rates at less than 4 weeks postpartum also indicated that the levonorgestrel intrauterine system was associated with a higher risk of expulsion (adjusted RR 1.91, 95% CI 1.50–2.43) compared with CuT380A. CONCLUSION: Postpartum IUD expulsion rates vary by timing of placement, delivery method, and IUD type. These results can aid in counseling women to make an informed choice about when to initiate their IUD and to help institutions implement postpartum contraception programs.

CDC's U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use (U.S. MEC) (first published in 2010 and updated in 2016) provides evidence-based guidance for the safe use of contraceptive methods among U.S. women with certain characteristics or medical conditions (1), and is adapted from global guidance from the World Health Organization (WHO) and kept up to date based on continual review of published literature (2).* CDC recently evaluated the evidence and the updated WHO guidance on the risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquisition among women using hormonal contraception.† After careful review, CDC adopted the updated WHO guidance for inclusion in the U.S. MEC guidance; this guidance states that the advantages of progestin-only injectable contraceptive use (including depot medroxyprogesterone acetate [DMPA]) by women at high risk for HIV infection outweigh the theoretical or proven risks (U.S. MEC category 2). The guidance also includes an accompanying updated clarification, which states that "there continues to be evidence of a possible increased risk of acquiring HIV among progestin-only injectable users. Uncertainty exists about whether this is due to methodological issues with the evidence or a real biological effect. In many settings, unintended pregnancies and/or pregnancy-related morbidity and mortality are common, and progestin-only injectables are among the few types of methods widely available. Women should not be denied the use of progestin-only injectables because of concerns about the possible increased risk. Women considering progestin-only injectables should be advised about these concerns, about the uncertainty over whether there is a causal relationship, and about how to minimize their risk of acquiring HIV." Recommendations for other hormonal contraceptive methods (including combined hormonal methods, implants, and progestin-only pills) remain the same; there is no restriction for their use among women at high risk for HIV infection (U.S. MEC category 1).

Family planning is essential for any comprehensive treatment plan for women of reproductive age with multiple sclerosis (MS), including counseling on using effective contraception to optimally time desired and prevent unintended pregnancies. This topical review summarizes the first evidence-based recommendations on contraception safety for women with MS. In 2016, evidence-based recommendations for contraceptive use by women with MS were included in US Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. They were developed after review of published scientific evidence on contraception safety and consultation with experts. We summarize and expand on the main conclusions of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidance. Most contraceptive methods appear based on current evidence to be safe for women with MS. The only restriction is use of combined hormonal contraceptives among women with MS with prolonged immobility because of concerns about possible venous thromboembolism. Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) do not appear to decrease the effectiveness of hormonal contraception although formal drug–drug interaction studies are limited. Neurologists can help women with MS make contraceptive choices that factor their level of disability, immobility, and medication use. For women with MS taking potentially teratogenic medications, highly effective methods that are long-acting (e.g. intrauterine devices, implants) might be the best option.

Background Migraine is common among women of reproductive age and is associated with an increased risk of ischemic stroke. Combined oral contraceptives (COCs) are also associated with an increased risk of ischemic stroke. Use of hormonal contraception among women with migraine might further elevate the risk of stroke among women of reproductive age. Objective To identify evidence regarding the risk of arterial thromboembolism (stroke or myocardial infarction) among women with migraine who use hormonal contraceptives. Methods We searched the PubMed database for all articles published from database inception through January 2016. We included studies that examined women with migraine overall or separated by subtype (with or without aura). Hormonal contraceptives of interest included combined hormonal methods (COCs, patch and ring) and progestin-only methods (progestin-only pills, injectables, implants and progestin intrauterine devices). Results Seven articles met inclusion criteria. All were case–control studies of fair to poor quality reporting on use of COCs or oral contraceptives (OCs) not further described and all reported stroke outcomes. Four studies demonstrated that, among women with migraine (not separated by subtype), COC use was associated with approximately two to four times the risk of stroke compared with nonuse. The only study to examine specific migraine subtypes found an elevated risk of stroke among women with migraine with aura, and this risk was similar regardless of OC use, although these odds ratios were not reported. Two studies did not report risks among women with migraine and COC use combined, but both found increased risks of stroke with migraine and COC use independently. No evidence was found on other hormonal contraceptives or on risk of myocardial infarction. Conclusion Limited evidence suggests a two- to fourfold increased risk of stroke among women with migraine who use COCs compared with nonuse. Additional study is needed on the risks of hormonal contraceptives, including combined and progestin-only methods, among women with different migraine subtypes.

ObjectivesTo provide updated and more detailed pooled intrauterine device expulsion rates and expulsion risk estimates among women with postpartum intrauterine device placement by timing of insertion, delivery type, and intrauterine device type to inform current intrauterine device insertion practices in the United States.Data sourcesWe searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov through June2019.Study eligibility criteriaWe included all studies, of any study design, that examined postpartum placement of Copper T380A (copper) or levonorgestrel-containing intrauterine devices that reported counts of expulsion.Study appraisal and synthesis methodsWe evaluated intrauterine device expulsion among women receiving postpartum intrauterine devices in the "immediate" (within 10 minutes), "early inpatient" (>10 minutes to

Background The Zika Contraception Access Network (Z-CAN) was designed to provide women in Puerto Rico who chose to delay or avoid pregnancy during the 2016–2017 Zika virus outbreak access to high-quality client-centered contraceptive counseling and the full range of reversible contractive methods on the same day and at no cost through a network of trained providers. We evaluated the implementation of Z-CAN from the patient perspective. Methods An online survey, administered to a subset of women served by the Z-CAN program approximately 2 weeks after their initial Z-CAN visit, assessed patient satisfaction and receipt of services consistent with select program strategies: receipt of high-quality client-centered contraceptive counseling, same-day access to the contraceptive method they were most interested in after counseling, and no-cost contraception. Results Of 3,503 respondents, 85.2% reported receiving high-quality client-centered contraceptive counseling. Among women interested in a contraceptive method after counseling (n = 3,470), most reported same-day access to that method (86.8%) and most reported receiving some method of contraception at no cost (87.4%). Women who reported receiving services according to Z-CAN program strategies were more likely than those who did not to be very satisfied with services. Women who received high-quality client-centered contraceptive counseling and same-day access to the method they were most interested in after counseling were also more likely to be very satisfied with the contraceptive method received. Conclusions A contraception access program can be rapidly implemented with high fidelity to program strategies in a fast-moving and complex public health emergency setting.

OBJECTIVE: The US Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use (USMEC) is the first national guidance containing evidence-based recommendations for contraception. We describe provider attitudes about contraceptive safety before and after the 2010 USMEC release. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted two cross-sectional mailed surveys using different nationwide samples of office-based physicians and Title X clinic providers before (2009–2010) and after (2013–2014) the USMEC release. We compared the proportion of providers reporting select contraceptive methods as safe for women with specific characteristics or medical conditions before and after the USMEC release and conducted multivariable logistic regression to adjust for provider characteristics. RESULTS: For the following select characteristics for which the USMEC classifies specific contraceptive methods as safe (Category 1 or 2), a significantly (p

Background Clinical practice guidelines that recommend women avoid pregnancy immediately after bariatric surgery, highlighting the need for effective contraception. However, women with a history of malabsorptive bariatric procedures should generally not use oral contraceptives, as these procedures may decrease oral contraceptive effectiveness. Objectives To identify provider characteristics associated with knowledge of combined oral contraceptive (COC) effectiveness. Setting United States. Methods We analyzed weighted survey data collected from national samples of public-sector health centers and office-based physicians who regularly provide family planning services (N = 2060). We asked providers about the effectiveness of COCs for women with a history of malabsorptive procedures compared with healthy women, giving them the response options of more/equally effective, less effective, and do not know. We used multinomial logistic regression to calculate adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals to identify characteristics associated with knowledge of COC effectiveness. Results Approximately 55% of providers correctly answered that COCs are less effective for women with malabsorptive procedures; 25% considered COCs more/equally effective, and 20% were uncertain. Among public-sector providers, the adjusted odds of uncertainty were significantly higher for those whose clinical focus was not reproductive health, for nurses versus advanced practice clinicians, and for providers working in clinics without Title X funding. For office-based physicians, adolescent medicine providers had higher odds of uncertainty versus obstetrician-gynecologists. Physicians practicing in settings classified as “other” (such as community health centers) had higher odds of considering COCs effective compared with those practicing in hospital or university clinics. Conclusions Substantial proportions of surveyed providers had inadequate knowledge of COC effectiveness for women with a history of malabsorptive procedures.

Importance Increased use of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC; intrauterine devices [IUDs] and implants) has likely contributed to declining US teenage pregnancy and birth rates, yet sexually transmitted infection (STI) rates among teenagers remain high. While LARC methods are highly effective for pregnancy prevention, they, as with all nonbarrier methods, do not protect against STIs, including HIV. Studies of the general adolescent population suggest condom use is lower among LARC vs non-LARC hormonal methods users (birth control pill, contraceptive patch, vaginal ring, or injection). Despite the high use of LARC among postpartum teenagers, no studies have examined whether condom use differs by contraceptive method in this population. Objective To compare condom use among sexually active postpartum teenagers using LARC vs those using non-LARC hormonal methods. Design, Setting, and Participants Cross-sectional analysis using 2012 to 2015 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), a multisite and population-based surveillance system that collects data on maternal attitudes, behaviors, and experiences before, during, and shortly after pregnancy. We used data from 37 sites. Using multivariable survey-weighted logistic regression, we assessed the association of condom use by contraceptive methods. Participants were teenage mothers (≤19 years) with a recent live birth reporting LARC or non-LARC hormonal method use. Data were analyzed between March 2018 and April 2018. Main Outcomes and Measures Condom use with LARC vs condom use with non-LARC hormonal methods. Results Among the 5480 (weighted N = 245 847) postpartum teenage mothers in our sample, most were aged 18 to 19 years, unmarried, had current Medicaid coverage, were first-time mothers, had reported their pregnancy was unintended, and almost half were non-Hispanic white. Overall, condom use was reported by 28.8% of these teenagers. Users of LARC compared with non-LARC hormonal methods were half as likely to use condoms (17.8% vs 35.6%; adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR], 0.50; 95% CI, 0.41-0.60). Users of IUDs (15.1%) were less likely to report condom use than those using an implant (21.5%; aPR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.51-0.98), patch, ring, or injection users (24.9%; aPR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.47-0.79), and pill users (47.2%; aPR, 0.32; 95% CI, 0.25-0.40). Conclusions and Relevance Self-reported condom use was low overall among postpartum teenage mothers and lower among users of LARC vs non-LARC hormonal methods. Given the high rates of STIs among teenage mothers combined with higher use of LARC among postpartum teenaged mothers, interventions to promote condom use for STI/HIV prevention during the postpartum period are critically important.

Objective To estimate the absolute and relative risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) among women who initiate depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) immediately postpartum compared with those who do not initiate hormonal contraception. Methods The IBM MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters databases were used to identify delivery hospitalizations among women aged 15-44 years during 2005 through 2014. Diagnosis, procedure, and drug codes were used to identify contraception, VTE, and potential confounding chronic or pregnancy-related conditions. Women who initiated DMPA during days 0 through 7 postpartum were compared with women who did not initiate hormonal contraception during days 0 through 7 postpartum. Women were followed from date of delivery through 12 weeks postpartum for the occurrence of VTE, with censoring at hormonal contraception initiation or prescription, hysterectomy, sterilization, or inpatient death. The incidence rate of VTE and 95% CIs were calculated within each group and the incidence rate ratio was calculated comparing the two groups. Results The unadjusted VTE incidence rate through 12 weeks postpartum was 0.42/10,000 women-days in the immediate postpartum DMPA group (34 events among 11,159 women contributing 805,999 days of follow-up) and 0.15/10,000 women-days in the control group (3,107 events among 3,102,011 women contributing 206,180,811 days of follow-up). The incidence rate ratio for VTE was 2.87 (95% CI 2.05-4.03) among women in the immediate postpartum DMPA group compared with women in the control group, adjusting for age alone. After adjusting for age and pregnancy-related and chronic conditions, the adjusted incidence rate ratio for VTE was 1.94 (95% CI 1.38-2.72) among women in the immediate postpartum DMPA group compared with women in the control group. Conclusion Initiation of DMPA immediately postpartum is associated with a low incidence but an increased relative risk of VTE compared with nonuse of hormonal contraception.

Social marketing is a commonly used strategy in global health. Social marketing programmes may sell subsidized products through commercial sector outlets, distribute appropriately priced products, deliver health services through social franchises and promote behaviours not dependent upon a product or service. We aimed to review evidence of the effectiveness of social marketing in low- and middle-income countries, focusing on major areas of investment in global health: HIV, reproductive health, child survival, malaria and tuberculosis. We searched PubMed, PsycInfo and ProQuest, using search terms linking social marketing and health outcomes for studies published from 1995 to 2013. Eligible studies used experimental or quasi-experimental designs to measure outcomes of behavioural factors, health behaviours and/or health outcomes in each health area. Studies were analysed by effect estimates and for application of social marketing benchmark criteria. After reviewing 18 974 records, 125 studies met inclusion criteria. Across health areas, 81 studies reported on changes in behavioural factors, 97 studies reported on changes in behaviour and 42 studies reported on health outcomes. The greatest number of studies focused on HIV outcomes (n = 45) and took place in sub-Saharan Africa (n = 67). Most studies used quasi-experimental designs and reported mixed results. Child survival had proportionately the greatest number of studies using experimental designs, reporting health outcomes, and reporting positive, statistically significant results. Most programmes used a range of methods to promote behaviour change. Programmes with positive, statistically significant findings were more likely to apply audience insights and cost-benefit analyses to motivate behaviour change. Key evidence gaps were found in voluntary medical male circumcision and childhood pneumonia. Social marketing can influence health behaviours and health outcomes in global health; however evaluations assessing health outcomes remain comparatively limited. Global health investments are needed to (i) fill evidence gaps, (ii) strengthen evaluation rigour and (iii) expand effective social marketing approaches.

The 2016 U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use (U.S. SPR) addresses a select group of common, yet sometimes controversial or complex, issues regarding initiation and use of specific contraceptive methods. These recommendations for health care providers were updated by CDC after review of the scientific evidence and consultation with national experts who met in Atlanta, Georgia, during August 26-28, 2015. The information in this report updates the 2013 U.S. SPR (CDC. U.S. selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013. MMWR 2013;62[No. RR-5]). Major updates include 1) revised recommendations for starting regular contraception after the use of emergency contraceptive pills and 2) new recommendations for the use of medications to ease insertion of intrauterine devices. The recommendations in this report are intended to serve as a source of clinical guidance for health care providers and provide evidence-based guidance to reduce medical barriers to contraception access and use. Health care providers should always consider the individual clinical circumstances of each person seeking family planning services. This report is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice for individual patients. Persons should seek advice from their health care providers when considering family planning options.

OBJECTIVE: To examine contraceptive use among women with selected medical conditions. METHODS: We used a nationwide health care claims database to identify women aged 15-44 years continuously enrolled in private insurance during 2004-2011 with and without selected medical conditions. We assessed current permanent and reversible prescription contraceptive use during October 1 2010 to September 30 2011 with diagnosis procedure and pharmacy codes and calculated prevalence by age and condition. We used polytomous logistic regression to calculate odds of female sterilization or reversible prescription methods compared with neither. Among users of reversible methods we used logistic regression to calculate odds of using long-acting reversible contraceptives compared with shorter acting methods. RESULTS: A low proportion of women with medical conditions were using sterilization or reversible prescription methods (45% and 30% of women aged 15-34 and 35-44 years respectively) and this proportion was consistently lower among the older age group across all medical conditions. Across both age groups sterilization and long-acting reversible contraceptives were used less frequently than shorter acting methods (injectable pill patch or ring). The odds of sterilization were higher among women with any compared with no condition for women aged 15-34 years (odds ratio [OR] 4.9 95% confidence interval [CI] 4.5-5.3) and 35-44 years (OR 1.2 95% CI 1.1-1.2). Among women using reversible prescription methods the odds of using long-acting reversible contraceptives were increased among those with any compared with no condition for women aged 15-34 years (OR 2.2 95% CI 2.1-2.5) and 35-44 years (OR 1.1 95% CI 1.1-1.2). CONCLUSION: Despite the potential for serious maternal and fetal pregnancy-associated risks contraceptive use was not optimal among women with medical conditions. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Background Contraception use among postpartum women is important to prevent unintended pregnancies and optimize birth spacing. Long-acting reversible contraception, including intrauterine devices and implants, is highly effective, yet compared to less effective methods utilization rates are low. Objectives We sought to estimate prevalence of long-acting reversible contraception use among postpartum women and examine factors associated with long-acting reversible contraception use among those using any reversible contraception. Study Design We analyzed 2012–2015 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, a population-based survey among women with recent live births. We included data from 37 sites that achieved the minimum overall response rate threshold for data release. We estimated the prevalence of long-acting reversible contraception use in our sample (n = 143,335). We examined maternal factors associated with long-acting reversible contraception use among women using reversible contraception (n = 97,013) using multivariable logistic regression (long-acting reversible contraception vs other type of reversible contraception) and multinomial regression (long-acting reversible contraception vs other hormonal contraception and long-acting reversible contraception vs other nonhormonal contraception). Results The prevalence of long-acting reversible contraception use overall was 15.3%. Among postpartum women using reversible contraception, 22.5% reported long-acting reversible contraception use, which varied by site, ranging from 11.2% in New Jersey to 37.6% in Alaska. Factors associated with postpartum long-acting reversible contraception use vs use of another reversible contraceptive method included age ≤24 years (adjusted odds ratio = 1.43; 95% confidence interval = 1.33–1.54) and ≥35 years (adjusted odds ratio = 0.87; 95% confidence interval = 0.80–0.96) vs 25–34 years; public insurance (adjusted odds ratio = 1.15; 95% confidence interval = 1.08–1.24) and no insurance (adjusted odds ratio = 0.73; 95% confidence interval = 0.55–0.96) vs private insurance at delivery; having a recent unintended pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio = 1.44; 95% confidence interval = 1.34–1.54) or being unsure about the recent pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio = 1.29; 95% confidence interval = 1.18–1.40) vs recent pregnancy intended; having ≥1 previous live birth (adjusted odds ratio = 1.40; 95% confidence interval = 1.31–1.48); and having a postpartum check-up after recent live birth (adjusted odds ratio = 2.70; 95% confidence interval = 2.35–3.11). Hispanic and non-Hispanic black postpartum women had a higher rate of long-acting reversible contraception use (26.6% and 23.4%, respectively) compared to non-Hispanic white women (21.5%), and there was significant race/ethnicity interaction with educational level. Conclusion Nearly 1 in 6 (15.3%) postpartum women with a recent live birth and nearly 1 in 4 (22.5%) postpartum women using reversible contraception reported long-acting reversible contraception use. Our analysis suggests that factors such as age, race/ethnicity, education, insurance, parity, intendedness of recent pregnancy, and postpartum visit attendance may be associated with postpartum long-acting reversible contraception use. Ensuring all postpartum women have access to the full range of contraceptive methods, including long-acting reversible contraception, is important to prevent unintended pregnancy and optimize birth spacing. Contraceptive access may be improved by public health efforts and programs that address barriers in the postpartum period, including increasing awareness of the availability, effectiveness, and safety of long-acting reversible contraception (and other methods), as well as providing full reimbursement for contraceptive services and removal of administrative and logistical barriers.

Identify factors associated with healthcare providers' frequency of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) provision to adolescents.We analyzed data from surveys mailed to a nationally representative sample of public-sector providers and office-based physicians (n=1984). We estimated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of factors associated with frequent DMPA provision to adolescents in the past year.Although most providers (95%) considered DMPA safe for adolescents, fewer reported frequent provision (89% of public-sector providers; 64% of office-based physicians). Among public-sector providers, factors associated with lower odds of frequent provision included working in settings without Title X funding (aOR 0.44, 95% CI 0.30-0.64), reporting primary care as their primary clinical focus versus reproductive or adolescent health (aOR 0.42, 95% CI 0.28-0.61), and providing fewer patients with family planning services. Among office-based physicians, factors associated with lower odds of frequent provision included specializing in obstetrics/gynecology (aOR 0.50, 95% CI 0.27-0.91) and family medicine (aOR 0.21, 95% CI 0.09-0.47) versus adolescent medicine, completing training ≥15 versus5 years ago (aOR 0.27, 95% CI 0.09-0.83), and reporting that 0-24% of patients pay with Medicaid or other government healthcare assistance versus ≥50% (aOR 0.23, 95% CI 0.09-0.61). The reason most commonly reported by providers for infrequent DMPA provision was patient preference for another method.While most providers reported frequently providing DMPA to adolescents, training on evidence-based recommendations for contraception, focused on subgroups of providers with lower odds of frequent DMPA provision, may increase adolescents' access to contraception.Although95% of providers considered depot medroxyprogesterone (DMPA) a safe contraceptive for adolescents, only 89% of public-sector providers and 64% of office-based physicians reported frequently providing DMPA to adolescents. Provider training on evidence-based recommendations for contraception counseling and provision may increase adolescents' access to DMPA and all methods of contraception.

Background As countries continue to improve their family planning (FP) programmes, they may draw on WHO’s evidence-based FP guidance and tools (i.e. materials) that support the provision of quality FP services. Methods To better understand the use and perceived impact of the materials and ways to strengthen their use by countries, we conducted qualitative interviews with WHO regional advisors, and with stakeholders in Ethiopia and Senegal who use WHO materials. Results WHO uses a multi-faceted strategy to directly and indirectly disseminate materials to country-level decision-makers. The materials are used to develop national family planning guidelines, protocols and training curricula. Participants reported that they trust the WHO materials because they are evidence based, and that they adapt materials to the country context (e.g. remove content on methods not available in the country). The main barrier to the use of national materials is resource constraints. Conclusions Although the system and processes for dissemination work, improvements might contribute to increased use of the materials. For example, providers may benefit from additional guidance on how to counsel women with characteristics or medical conditions where contraceptive method eligibility criteria do not clearly rule in or rule out a method.

As women approach menopause, fertility declines but pregnancy can still occur. Maternal and infant risks are increased among women of older reproductive age compared with younger women. A high proportion of pregnancies among women of older reproductive age are unintended and these pregnancies can also be associated with negative maternal and infant consequences. However, women and their healthcare providers may have concerns about risks associated with contraceptive use, particularly combined hormonal contraceptives, among women of older reproductive age who already may be at increased risk for conditions such as cardiovascular disease and breast cancer. Nonetheless, available evidence does not suggest that hormonal contraceptive use among women of older reproductive age substantially increases age-related risks of cardiovascular events or breast cancer. CDC recommends that contraception is still needed for women older than 44 years who have not reached menopause and wish to avoid pregnancy, and that based on age alone, all contraceptive methods are considered safe or generally safe for use by women of older reproductive age.

Objectives. We explored how changes in insurance coverage contributed to recent nationwide decreases in newborn circumcision. Methods. Hospital discharge data from the 2000–2010 Nationwide Inpatient Sample were analyzed to assess trends in circumcision incidence among male newborn birth hospitalizations covered by private insurance or Medicaid. We examined the impact of insurance coverage on circumcision incidence. Results. Overall, circumcision incidence decreased significantly from 61.3% in 2000 to 56.9% in 2010 in unadjusted analyses (P for trend = .008), but not in analyses adjusted for insurance status (P for trend = .46) and other predictors (P for trend = .55). Significant decreases were observed only in the South, where adjusted analyses revealed decreases in circumcision overall (P for trend = .007) and among hospitalizations with Medicaid (P for trend = .005) but not those with private insurance (P for trend = .13). Newborn male birth hospitalizations covered by Medicaid increased from 36.0% (2000) to 50.1% (2010; P for trend Conclusions. Shifts in insurance coverage, particularly toward Medicaid, likely contributed to decreases in newborn circumcision nationwide and in the South. Barriers to the availability of circumcision should be revisited, particularly for families who desire but have less financial access to the procedure.

Black teenagers have relatively high rates of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and recent research suggests the role of contextual factors, as well as risk behaviors. We explore the role of 4 categories of risk and protective factors on having a biologically confirmed STD among black, female teenagers.Black teenage girls (14-19 years old) accessing services at a publicly funded family planning clinic provided a urine specimen for STD testing and completed an audio computer-assisted self-interview that assessed the following: risk behaviors, relationship characteristics, social factors, and psychosocial factors. We examined bivariate associations between each risk and protective factor and having gonorrhea and/or chlamydia, as well as multivariate logistic regression among 339 black female teenagers.More than one-fourth (26.5%) of participants had either gonorrhea and/or chlamydia. In multivariate analyses, having initiated sex before age 15 (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.87) and having concurrent sex partners in the past 6 months (aOR, 1.55) were positively associated with having an STD. Living with her father (aOR, 0.44), believing that an STD is the worst thing that could happen (aOR, 0.50), and believing she would feel dirty and embarrassed about an STD (aOR, 0.44) were negatively associated with having an STD.Social factors and attitudes toward STDs and select risk behaviors were associated with the risk for STDs, suggesting the need for interventions that address more distal factors. Future studies should investigate how such factors influence safer sexual behaviors and the risk for STDs among black female teenagers.

BACKGROUND: There is limited information on the patterns and trends of contraceptive use among women living with HIV, compared with noninfected women in the United States. Further, little is known about whether antiretroviral therapy correlates with contraceptive use. Such information is needed to help identify potential gaps in care and to enhance unintended pregnancy prevention efforts. OBJECTIVE: We sought to compare contraceptive method use among HIV-infected and noninfected privately insured women in the United States, and to evaluate the association between antiretroviral therapy use and contraceptive method use. STUDY DESIGN: We used a large US nationwide health care claims database to identify girls and women ages 15–44 years with prescription drug coverage. We used diagnosis, procedure, and National Drug Codes to assess female sterilization and reversible prescription contraception use in 2008 and 2014 among women continuously enrolled in the database during 2003 through 2008 or 2009 through 2014, respectively. Women with no codes were classified as using no method; these may have included women using nonprescription methods, such as condoms. We calculated prevalence of contraceptive use by HIV infection status, and by use of antiretroviral therapy among those with HIV. We used multivariable polytomous logistic regression to calculate unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for female sterilization, long-acting reversible contraception, and short-acting hormonal contraception compared to no method. RESULTS: While contraceptive use increased among HIV-infected and noninfected women from 2008 through 2014, in both years, a lower proportion of HIV-infected women used prescription contraceptive methods (2008: 17.5%; 2014: 28.9%, compared with noninfected women (2008: 28.8%; 2014: 39.8%, P < .001 for both). Controlling for demographics, chronic medical conditions, pregnancy history, and cohort year, HIV-infected women compared to HIV-noninfected women had lower odds of using long-acting reversible contraception (adjusted odds ratio, 0.67; 95% confidence interval, 0.52–0.86 compared to no method) or short-acting hormonal contraception method (adjusted odds ratio, 0.59; 95% confidence interval, 0.50–0.70 compared to no method). In 2014, HIV-infected women using antiretroviral therapy were significantly more likely to use no method (76.8% vs 64.1%), and significantly less likely to use short-acting hormonal contraception (11.0% vs 22.7%) compared to HIV-infected women not using antiretroviral therapy. Those receiving antiretroviral therapy had lower odds of using short-acting hormonal contraception compared to no method (adjusted odds ratio, 0.45; 95% confidence interval, 0.32–0.63). There was no significant difference in female sterilization by HIV status or antiretroviral therapy use. CONCLUSION: Despite the safety of reversible contraceptives for women with HIV, use of prescription contraception continues to be lower among privately insured HIV-infected women compared to noninfected women, particularly among those receiving antiretroviral therapy.

OBJECTIVE: Health care providers should assess pregnancy in women seeking contraceptive services. Although urine pregnancy tests are available in most U.S. settings their accuracy varies based on timing relative to missed menses recent intercourse or recent pregnancy. We examined the performance of a checklist based on criteria recommended in family planning guidance documents to assist health care providers in assessing pregnancy in a sample of U.S. teenagers and young women. METHODS: Study participants were a convenience sample of sexually active black females aged 14-19 years seeking care in an urban family planning clinic. Each participant provided a urine sample for pregnancy testing and was then administered the checklist in two formats audio computer-assisted self-interview and in-person interview. We estimated measures of the checklist performance compared with urine pregnancy test as the reference standard including negative predictive value sensitivity specificity and positive predictive value. RESULTS: Of 350 participants 31 (8.9%) had a positive urine pregnancy test. The audio computer-assisted self-interview checklist indicated pregnancy was unlikely for 250 participants of whom 241 had a negative urine pregnancy test (negative predictive value=96.4%). The sensitivity of the audio computer-assisted self-interview checklist was 71% the specificity was 75.6% and the positive predictive value was 22%. The in-person checklist yielded similar results. CONCLUSION: The checklist may be a valuable tool to assist in assessing pregnancy in teenagers and young women. Appropriate use of the checklist by family planning providers in combination with discussion and clinically indicated use of urine pregnancy tests may reduce unnecessary barriers to contraception in this population.

Purpose To estimate the prevalence of and factors associated with dual method use (i.e., condom with hormonal contraception or an intrauterine device) among adolescents and young women in the United States. Methods We used 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth data from 2,093 unmarried females aged 15–24 years and at risk for unintended pregnancy. Using multivariable logistic regression, we estimated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to assess the associations between dual method use at last sex and sociodemographic, behavioral, reproductive history, and sexual behavior factors. Results At last sex, 20.7% of adolescents and young women used dual methods, 34.4% used condoms alone, 29.1% used hormonal contraception or an intrauterine device alone, and 15.8% used another method or no method. Factors associated with decreased odds of dual method use versus dual method nonuse included having a previous pregnancy (aOR = .44, 95% CI .27–.69), not having health insurance coverage over the past 12 months (aOR = .41, 95% CI .19–.91), and having sex prior to age 16 (aOR = .49, 95% CI .30–.78). Conclusions The prevalence of dual method use is low among adolescents and young women. Adolescents and young women who may have a higher risk of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (e.g., those with a previous pregnancy) were less likely to use dual methods at last sex. Interventions are needed to increase the correct and consistent use of dual methods among adolescents and young women who may be at greater risk for unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.

Objective. To better understand preferences and practices regarding partner notification of sexually transmitted infection (STI) among female, African-American adolescents.Methods. Participants completed a questionnaire and STI testing at baseline. Those diagnosed with Chlamydia or gonorrhea were recruited for a follow-up study, involving another questionnaire and repeat STI testing after three months.Results. At baseline, most participants (85.1%) preferred to tell their partner about an STI diagnosis themselves instead of having a health care provider inform him, and 71.0% preferred to bring their partner for clinic treatment instead of giving him pills or a prescription. Two-thirds of participants were classified as having high self-efficacy for partner notification of a positive STI diagnosis. In the multivariable analysis, older participants and those with fewer lifetime sexual partners were more likely to have high self-efficacy. Ninety-three participants (26.6%) had Chlamydia or gonorrhea and, of this subset, 55 participated in the follow-up study. Most adolescents in the follow-up study (76.4%) notified their partner about their infection.Conclusion. Although participants were willing to use most methods of partner notification, most preferred to tell partners themselves and few preferred expedited partner therapy. Traditional methods for partner notification and treatment may not be adequate for all adolescents in this population.

Immediate postpartum intrauterine devices (IUDs) have been underutilized in the United States despite their known safety. Understanding how providers' attitudes contribute to underutilization is important in improving access. Our objective was to examine healthcare providers' perceptions of the safety of immediate postpartum IUDs before publication of United States contraceptive guidelines.We analyzed survey data collected from December 2009 to March 2010 from 635 office-based physicians and 1368 Title X clinic providers (overall response rate of 64.8%). Providers were asked how safe they thought copper and levonorgestrel (LNG) IUDs were in postpartum women (very safe, safe, unsafe, very unsafe, and unsure). Multivariable logistic regression was used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for characteristics associated with considering immediate and delayed postpartum IUDs to be safe.Less than 40% of respondents considered immediate or delayed IUD insertion to be safe. Providers with1 day of family planning training had decreased odds of considering immediate postpartum IUD insertion to be safe compared with unsafe/unsure (aOR 0.18, 95% CI 0.04-0.84 for copper IUD and aOR 0.17, 95% CI 0.04-0.81 for LNG-IUD). Providers without training in postpartum or interval copper IUD insertion had decreased odds of considering immediate postpartum copper IUD insertion (aOR 0.40, 95% CI 0.16-0.79) and delayed postpartum insertion for both IUD types to be safe (aOR 0.34, 95% CI 0.18-0.66 for copper IUD and aOR 0.41, 95% CI 0.21-0.77 for LNG-IUD).Before United States contraceptive guidelines, a majority of providers perceived immediate postpartum IUDs to be unsafe.

Background Unscheduled uterine bleeding is common among women who choose extended or continuous combined hormonal contraception and may subsequently lead to method discontinuation. This systematic review evaluates the evidence on treatments for unscheduled bleeding for women using continuous or extended combined hormonal contraception. Study design We searched the PubMed database for peer-reviewed articles that were published in any language from inception of the database through January 2012 and were relevant to therapeutic or prophylactic treatments for unscheduled uterine bleeding during extended or continuous combined hormonal contraception use. We used standard abstract forms and grading systems to summarize and assess the quality of the evidence. Results Four articles met the inclusion criteria. Evidence from two randomized controlled trials, both of fair quality, suggested that a short hormone-free interval of 3 or 4 days improved a current unscheduled bleeding episode. Evidence from one randomized controlled trial of fair quality suggested that oral doxycycline (100 mg twice daily) did not improve a current unscheduled bleeding episode. One good quality randomized controlled trial suggested that prophylactic treatment with a daily low dose of oral doxycycline (40 mg) caused earlier onset of amenorrhea in new extended combined oral contraceptive users. Conclusions Limited evidence suggests that introducing a short hormone-free interval when unscheduled bleeding occurs during continuous or extended hormonal contraceptive use may reduce unscheduled bleeding days; one study suggests that twice-daily oral doxycycline initiated at the time of unscheduled bleeding is an ineffective treatment. Limited data suggest that prophylactic low-dose daily oral doxycycline may induce earlier amenorrhea among new extended combined hormonal contraceptive users.

Background Female sterilization is the second most commonly used form of contraception in the United States. Newer approaches to female sterilization, including hysteroscopic methods, have been approved for use in the United States since 2002. Little is known about the occurrence and timing of pregnancies after these procedures. Study Design The objective of this systematic review was to identify evidence that assesses when and how often pregnancies occur following hysteroscopic sterilization. The PubMed database was searched for all studies published from database inception through March 2012 that reported whether or not pregnancies occurred following hysteroscopic sterilization. Results Twenty-four original research articles of fair quality met the inclusion criteria: 22 studies of women who underwent Essure® placement and 2 studies of women who underwent Adiana® placement. Eleven articles that documented bilateral tubal occlusion with hysterosalpingogram (HSG) or placement with X-ray or ultrasound following Essure® placement did not report any pregnancies with follow-up ranging from 7 months to 7 years. The remaining 11 articles identified 102 reported pregnancies. Eighteen of these pregnancies occurred prior to the 3-month period required before imaging for contraceptive reliability. Two articles did not report what follow-up imaging was performed among women after Essure® placement; one of these articles reported three pregnancies. Two reports from the same study of women who underwent Adiana® placement reported six pregnancies during the first year of follow-up, three pregnancies during the second year of follow-up and no pregnancies during the third year of follow-up. Conclusions Fair-quality evidence suggests that among women who were followed beyond 3 months after hysteroscopic sterilization, pregnancies were rare and generally occurred among women who had no imaging follow-up or had inadequate confirmation of placement or occlusion. Few pregnancies occurred in women with documented bilateral tubal occlusion by HSG or correct placement at 3 months by ultrasound or X-ray. Only one study reported follow-up past 5 years. Further studies are needed to address the long-term effectiveness of hysteroscopic sterilization.

Progress has been made in efforts to reduce unintended pregnancy; however, unintended pregnancy remains a public health issue in the United States. A key component of reducing unintended pregnancy is to increase correct and consistent use of contraception by reducing barriers to access and use. The CDC has recently updated its guidance for the safe and effective use of contraception. The U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use (US MEC), 2016, and U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use (US SPR), 2016, are intended for healthcare providers to help patients choose a method that is safe and can be used effectively. The recommendations aim to reduce certain barriers to contraception and thus help women, men, and couples to control timing of pregnancies.

Background Contraception is an important consideration for women with multiple sclerosis (MS); however, little is known about the possible effects of hormonal contraception on disease progression or other adverse outcomes (e.g., thrombosis, low bone mineral density). Objective To evaluate the evidence on the safety of contraceptive use among women with MS. Search strategy We searched the PubMed database for peer-reviewed articles published in any language from database inception through July 2015. Selection criteria We included studies that examined health outcomes among women diagnosed with MS initiating or continuing a contraceptive method. We excluded case reports and case series but included all other study designs. Results From 111 articles, we identified four studies (from 5 articles) that met our inclusion criteria. Evidence from one randomized controlled trial, two retrospective cohort studies, and one cross-sectional study suggests that use of combined oral contraceptives (COCs) or oral contraceptives (OCs) (type not specified) among women with MS does not worsen the clinical course of disease, defined as disability level , disease severity or progression , relapse or number of new brain lesions on magnetic resonance imaging (body of evidence grading Level I, fair to Level II-3, poor). No studies were identified that examined the safety of other contraceptive methods or examined other outcomes of interest (venous thromboembolism, changes in bone mineral density) related to contraceptive use among women with MS. Conclusions Limited evidence suggests that COC or OC use after MS onset does not worsen the clinical course of disease.

Objectives To investigate levonorgestrel (LNG)-releasing and copper-bearing (Cu) intrauterine device (IUD) safety among breastfeeding women and, for Cu-IUD use, breastfeeding performance and infant health. Study design Systematic review. Methods We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library and clinicaltrials.gov for articles through January 2016. We included studies of Cu-IUD or LNG-IUD users comparing IUD-specific (perforation, expulsion) and other contraceptive-related (infection, removal/cessation due to bleeding/pain and other adverse events) outcomes for breastfeeding vs. non-breastfeeding women. We also included studies of breastfeeding women comparing contraceptive-related outcome for IUD-users vs. other contraceptive-method users. Finally, we included studies comparing breastfeeding outcomes among Cu-IUD users to users of other nonhormonal contraceptives or no contraception. Results Of 548 articles identified, 23 (16 studies) met the inclusion criteria. Two studies suggested that the risk of IUD perforation was 6–10 times higher among breastfeeding vs. non-breastfeeding women. Seven studies suggested that risks for other adverse events were similar or lower among breastfeeding vs. non-breastfeeding women. Three studies among breastfeeding women found no increased risk of adverse events in IUD users vs. nonusers. Breastfeeding performance and infant growth were similar for Cu-IUD users and users of other nonhormonal methods or no contraception. Conclusion Overall, risks for adverse events among IUD users, including expulsion, pain and removals, were similar or lower for breastfeeding women vs. non-breastfeeding women. Uterine perforation with IUDs, while rare, appeared more frequent among breastfeeding women. No evidence indicated that Cu-IUD use in breastfeeding women influences breastfeeding performance or infant growth.

Background Women with medical conditions associated with increased risk for thrombosis generally should not use estrogen-containing contraceptives; however, less is known about progestin-only contraceptives (POCs) and thrombosis risk. Objectives The objective was to identify evidence regarding the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) or arterial thromboembolism [stroke or acute myocardial infarction (AMI)] among women using POCs. Methods We searched the PubMed database for all articles published from database inception through January 2016 for studies examining thrombosis among women using POCs. We included studies which examined women with medical conditions associated with thrombosis risk, as well as studies of women in the general population (either without these conditions or who were not specified to have these conditions). Hormonal contraceptives of interest included progestin-only pills (POPs), injectables, implants and levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine devices (LNG-IUDs). Outcomes of interest included VTE, stroke and AMI. Results There were 26 articles of good to poor quality that met inclusion criteria; 9 studies examined women with medical conditions and 20 examined women in the general population. Two studies found that, among smokers and women with certain thrombogenic mutations, use of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) had elevated odds of VTE compared with nonsmokers or those without mutations, although confidence intervals were wide and overlapped with odds among nonusers. One study found that, among women with previous VTE, use of POCs (including DMPA) was associated with a nonsignificant increased odds of recurrent VTE (all of which were among DMPA users); two other studies that examined POCs other than DMPA did not observe an association with recurrent VTE. Two studies found that use of DMPA among healthy women was also associated with increased odds of VTE. Two studies found that use of POCs for therapeutic indications was associated with increased odds of VTE. Studies did not find increased odds of VTE with POPs for contraceptive purposes, implants or LNG-IUDs nor were there increased odds of stroke or AMI with any POCs. Conclusion The majority of evidence identified by this systematic review did not suggest an increase in odds for venous or arterial events with use of most POCs. Limited evidence suggested increased odds of VTE with use of injectables (three studies) and use of POCs for therapeutic indications (two studies, one with POCs unspecified and the other with POPs). Any increase in risk likely translates to a small increase in absolute numbers of thrombotic events at the population level.

Background With dramatic improvements in life expectancy for cystic fibrosis (CF) patients, contraception for women with CF has become an important issue. There are theoretical concerns that hormonal contraceptive use among women with CF may impact disease severity or risk for other adverse health outcomes, including thrombosis and poor bone health, as well as concerns that malabsorption or altered drug metabolism might impact contraceptive effectiveness. Objective To evaluate evidence on the safety and effectiveness of contraceptive methods among women with CF. Search Strategy We searched the PubMed database for all articles published from database inception through October 2015. Selection Criteria We included studies that examined measures of disease severity, other health outcomes or indicators of contraceptive effectiveness among women with CF initiating or continuing a contraceptive method. Results Seven studies met our inclusion criteria. Three observational studies of fair to poor quality suggest that use of oral contraceptives (OCs) does not negatively impact CF disease severity, defined as changes in pulmonary function, number of exacerbations or need for intravenous antibiotics. Three small studies of poor quality reported on contraceptive failure among women with CF using combined hormonal contraceptives (combined OCs, patch or ring). One pregnancy was reported in a patch user out of 43 hormonal contraceptive users across all studies. One pharmacokinetic study reported that women with CF achieve steroid hormone plasma concentrations similar to healthy women after ingestion of combined OCs. Conclusions Limited evidence suggests that hormonal contraceptive use does not negatively impact disease severity among women with CF and that hormonal contraceptive effectiveness is not impaired by CF. Studies were limited by small sample sizes and short duration of follow-up. No studies examined the effect of hormonal contraception on thrombosis or bone health among women with CF.

To examine health care burden, pregnancy outcomes and impact of high risk medical conditions among pregnancy hospitalizations during influenza season. Length of stay, hospitalization charges, and delivery complications were compared between hospitalizations with and without respiratory illness and compared by presence of high risk medical conditions. Length of stay and hospital charges were significantly increased among respiratory illness hospitalizations versus non-respiratory hospitalizations. Among respiratory illness hospitalization, the odds of intrauterine fetal demise were increased (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.50, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.97–3.18). Among live births, there were higher odds of preterm delivery (aOR 3.82, 95 % CI 3.53–4.14), cesarean delivery (aOR 3.47, 95 % CI 3.22–3.74), and fetal distress (aOR 2.33, 95 % CI 2.15–2.52). The presence of high risk medical conditions did not impact pregnancy outcomes. Among pregnant women hospitalized during influenza season, those with respiratory illness were more likely than those without respiratory illness to have poor perinatal outcomes, regardless of the presence of high risk conditions. Efforts to minimize influenza morbidity, including universal vaccination and early antiviral therapy should be promoted among all pregnant women.