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Natural product–derived crude drugs are expected to yield an abundance of new drugs to treat infectious diseases. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an oncogenic virus that significantly impacts public health. In this study, we sought to identify anti-HCV compounds in extracts of natural products. A total of 110 natural compounds extracted from several herbal medicine plants were examined for antiviral activity against HCV. Using a Huh7-mCherry-NLS-IPS reporter system for HCV infection, we first performed a rapid screening for anti-HCV compounds extracted from crude drugs. The compounds threo-2,3-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3-butoxypropan-1-ol (#106) and medioresinol (#110), which were extracted from Crataegus cuneate, exhibited anti-HCV activity and significantly inhibited HCV production in a dose-dependent manner. Analyses using HCV pseudoparticle and subgenomic replicon systems indicated that compounds #106 and #110 specifically inhibit HCV RNA replication but not viral entry or translation. Interestingly, compound #106 also inhibited the replication and production of hepatitis A virus. Our findings suggest that C. cuneate is a new source for novel anti-hepatitis virus drug development.

Although the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine is effective for preventing cervical cancers, this vaccine does not eliminate pre-existing infections, and alternative strategies have been warranted. Here, we report that FOXP4 is a new target molecule for differentiation therapy of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). An immunohistochemical study showed that FOXP4 was expressed in columnar epithelial, reserve, and immature squamous cells, but not in mature squamous cells of the normal uterine cervix. In contrast with normal mature squamous cells, FOXP4 was expressed in atypical squamous cells in CIN and squamous cell carcinoma lesions. The FOXP4-positive areas significantly increased according to the CIN stages from CIN1 to CIN3. In monolayer cultures, downregulation of FOXP4 attenuated proliferation and induced squamous differentiation in CIN1-derived HPV 16-positive W12 cells via an ELF3-dependent pathway. In organotypic raft cultures, FOXP4-downregulated W12 cells showed mature squamous phenotypes of CIN lesions. In human keratinocyte-derived HaCaT cells, FOXP4 downregulation also induced squamous differentiation via an ELF3-dependent pathway. These findings suggest that downregulation of FOXP4 inhibits cell proliferation and promotes the differentiation of atypical cells in CIN lesions. Based on these results, we propose that FOXP4 is a novel target molecule for nonsurgical CIN treatment that inhibits CIN progression by inducing squamous differentiation.

Several epidemiological studies have suggested that Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lytic infection is essential for the development of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), as the elevation of antibody titers against EBV lytic proteins is a common feature of NPC. Although ZEBRA protein is a key trigger for the initiation of lytic infection, whether its expression affects the prognosis and pathogenesis of NPC remains unclear. In this study, 64 NPC biopsy specimens were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. We found that ZEBRA was significantly associated with a worsening of progression-free survival in NPC (adjusted hazard ratio, 3.58; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-11.87; p = 0.037). Moreover, ZEBRA expression positively correlated with key endocrinological proteins, estrogen receptor α, and aromatase. The transcriptional level of ZEBRA is activated by estrogen in an estrogen receptor α-dependent manner, resulting in an increase in structural gene expression levels and extracellular virus DNA copy number in NPC cell lines, reminiscent of lytic infection. Interestingly, it did not suppress cellular proliferation or increase apoptosis, in contrast with cells treated with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate and sodium butyrate, indicating that viral production induced by estrogen is not a cell lytic phenomenon. Our results suggest that intratumoral estrogen overproduced by aromatase could induce ZEBRA expression and EBV reactivation, contributing to the progression of NPC.

An Epstein‐Barr virus (EBV)—encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is a principal oncogene that plays a pivotal role in EBV‐associated malignant tumors including nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC). Recent genomic landscape studies revealed that NPC also contained many genomic mutations, suggesting the role of LMP1 as a driver gene for the induction of these genomic mutations. Nonetheless, its exact mechanism has not been investigated. In this study, we report that LMP1 alters the expression profile of APOBEC3s(A3s), host deaminases that introduce consecutive C‐to‐U mutations (hypermutation). In vitro, LMP1 induces APOBEC3B (A3B) and 3F(A3F), in a nasopharyngeal cell line, AdAH. Overexpression of LMP1, A3B, or A3F induces mtDNA hypermutation, which is also detectable from NPC specimens. Expression of LMP1 and A3B in NPC was correlated with neck metastasis. These results provide evidence as to which LMP1 induces A3s and mtDNA hypermutation, and how LMP1 facilitates metastasis is also discussed., EBV LMP1 induces host cytidine deaminases, APOBECs, in nasopharyngeal cells. TES2 domain is important for LMP1‐induced LMP1 hypermutates host mitochondrial genome.

The covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) of hepatitis B virus (HBV) plays a key role in the persistence of viral infection. We have previously shown that overexpression of an antiviral factor APOBEC3G (A3G) induces hypermutation in duck HBV (DHBV) cccDNA, whereas uracil-DNA-glycosylase (UNG) reduces these mutations. In this study, using cell-culture systems, we examined whether endogenous A3s and UNG affect HBV cccDNA mutation frequency. IFNγ stimulation induced a significant increase in endogenous A3G expression and cccDNA hypermutation. UNG inhibition enhanced the IFNγ-mediated hypermutation frequency. Transfection of reconstructed cccDNA revealed that this enhanced hypermutation caused a reduction in viral replication. These results suggest that the balance of endogenous A3s and UNG activities affects HBV cccDNA mutation and replication competency.

Current anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) drugs are suppressive but not curative for HBV infection, so there is considerable demand for the development of new anti-HBV agents. In this study, we found that fungus-derived exophillic acid inhibits HBV infection with a 50% maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 1.1 µM and a 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC50) of >30 µM in primary human hepatocytes. Exophillic acid inhibited preS1-mediated viral attachment to cells but did not affect intracellular HBV replication. Exophillic acid appears to target the host cells to reduce their susceptibility to viral attachment rather than acting on the viral particles. We found that exophillic acid interacted with the HBV receptor, sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP). Exophillic acid impaired the uptake of bile acid, the original function of NTCP. Consistent with our hypothesis that it affects NTCP, exophillic acid inhibited infection with HBV and hepatitis D virus (HDV), but not that of hepatitis C virus. Moreover, exophillic acid showed a pan-genotypic anti-HBV effect. We thus identified the anti-HBV/HDV activity of exophillic acid and revealed its mode of action. Exophillic acid is expected to be a potential new lead compound for the development of antiviral agents.

Sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP) is a receptor that is essential for hepatitis B virus (HBV) entry into the host cell. A number of HBV entry inhibitors targeting NTCP have been reported to date; these inhibitors have facilitated a mechanistic analysis of the viral entry process. However, the mechanism of HBV internalization into host cells after interaction of virus with NTCP remains largely unknown. Recently, we reported that troglitazone, a thiazolidinedione derivative, specifically inhibits both HBV internalization and NTCP oligomerization, resulting in inhibition of HBV infection. Here, using troglitazone as a chemical probe to investigate entry process, the contribution of NTCP oligomerization to HBV internalization was evaluated. Using surface plasmon resonance and transporter kinetics, we found that troglitazone directly interacts with NTCP and non-competitively interferes with NTCP-mediated bile acid uptake, suggesting that troglitazone allosterically binds to NTCP, rather than to the bile acid-binding pocket. Additionally, alanine scanning mutagenesis showed that a mutation at phenylalanine 274 of NTCP (F274A) caused a loss of HBV susceptibility and disrupted both the oligomerization of NTCP and HBV internalization without affecting viral attachment to the cell surface. An inhibitor of the interaction between NTCP and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), another host cofactor essential for HBV internalization, impeded NTCP oligomerization. Meanwhile, co-immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that neither troglitazone nor the F274A mutation in NTCP affect the NTCP-EGFR interaction. These findings suggest that NTCP oligomerization is initiated downstream of the NTCP-EGFR interaction, and then triggers HBV internalization. This study provides significant insight into the HBV entry mechanisms. Importance Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is mediated by a specific interaction with sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP), a viral entry receptor. Although the virus-receptor interactions are believed to trigger viral internalization into host cells, the exact molecular mechanisms of HBV internalization are not understood. In this study, we revealed the mode of action whereby troglitazone, a specific inhibitor of HBV internalization, impedes NTCP oligomerization, and identified NTCP phenylalanine 274 as a residue essential for this oligomerization. We further analyzed the association between NTCP oligomerization and HBV internalization, a process that is mediated by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), another essential host cofactor for HBV internalization. Our study provides critical information on the mechanism of HBV entry, and suggests that oligomerization of the viral receptor serves as an attractive target for drug discovery.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) polymerase is the only virus-encoded enzyme essential for producing the HBV genome and is regarded as an attractive drug target. However, the difficulty of synthesizing and purifying recombinant HBV polymerase protein has hampered the development of new drugs targeting this enzyme, especially compounds unrelated to the nucleoside structure. We recently have developed a technique for the synthesis and purification of recombinant HBV polymerase containing the reverse transcriptase (RT) domain that carried DNA elongation activity in vitro. We used the overproduced protein to establish an in vitro high-throughput screening system to identify compounds that inhibit the elongation activity of HBV polymerase. We screened 1120 compounds and identified a stilbene derivative, piceatannol, as a potential anti-HBV agent. Derivative analysis identified another stilbene derivative, PDM2, that was able to inhibit HBV replication with an IC50 of 14.4 ± 7.7 μM. An infection experiment suggested that the compounds inhibit the replication of HBV rather than the entry process, as expected. Surface plasmon resonance analysis demonstrated a specific interaction between PDM2 and the RT domain. Importantly, PDM2 showed similar inhibitory activity against the replication of both wild-type HBV and a lamivudine/entecavir-resistant HBV variant. Furthermore, PDM2 showed an additive effect in combination with clinically used nucleos(t)ide analogs. We report the development of a screening system that is useful for identifying non-nucleos(t)ide RT inhibitors.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is the causative agent of an aggressive skin tumor, Merkel cell carcinoma. The viral genome is integrated into the tumor genome and harbors nonsense mutations in the helicase domain of large T antigen. However, the molecular mechanisms by which the viral genome gains the tumor-specific mutations remain to be elucidated. Focusing on host cytosine deaminases APOBEC3s, we find that A3A, A3B, or A3G introduces A3-specific mutations into episomal MCPyV genomes in MCPyV-replicating 293-derivative cells. Sequence analysis of MCPyV genomes retrieved from the NCBI database revealed a decrease of TpC dinucleotide, a preferred target for A3A and A3B, in the 3'-region of the large T antigen‒coding sequence. The viral DNA isolated from tumors contained mutated cytosines, with a remarkable bias toward TpC dinucleotide. Analysis of publicly available microarray data showed that expression of IFN-γ and cytotoxic T lymphocyte markers was positively correlated with the A3A, A3B, and A3G levels in MCPyV-positive but not in MCPyV-negative tumors. Finally, IFN-γ treatment induced A3B and A3G expression in the MCPyV-positive Merkel cell carcinoma cell line MS-1. These results suggest that the IFN-γ-A3B axis plays pivotal roles in evolutionally shaping MCPyV genomic sequences and in generating tumor-specific large T antigen mutations during development of Merkel cell carcinoma.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the major causative factor of chronic viral hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. We previously demonstrated that a proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β reduced the level of HBV RNA. However, the mechanism underlying IL-1β-mediated viral RNA reduction remains incompletely understood. In this study, we report that immune regulator Monocyte chemotactic protein-1-induced protein 1 (MCPIP1) can reduce HBV RNA in hepatocytes. MCPIP1 expression level was higher in the liver tissue of HBV-infected patients and mice. Overexpression of MCPIP1 decreased HBV RNA, whereas ablating MCPIP1 in vitro enhanced HBV production. The domains responsible for RNase activity or oligomerization, were required for MCPIP1-mediated viral RNA reduction. The epsilon structure of HBV RNA was important for its antiviral activity and cleaved by MCPIP1 in the cell-free system. Lastly, knocking out MCPIP1 attenuated the anti-HBV effect of IL-1β, suggesting that MCPIP1 is required for IL-1β-mediated HBV RNA reduction. Overall, these results suggest that MCPIP1 may be involved in the antiviral effect downstream of IL-1β.

Some APOBEC3 family members have antiviral activity against retroviruses and DNA viruses. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that is the major causative factor of severe liver diseases such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. To determine whether APOBEC3 variants in humans have different anti-HBV activities, we evaluated natural variants of APOBEC3C, APOBEC3G, and APOBEC3H using an HBV-replicating cell culture model. Our data demonstrate that the APOBEC3C variant S188I had increased restriction activity and hypermutation frequency against HBV DNA. In contrast, the APOBEC3G variant H186R did not alter the anti-HBV and hypermutation activities. Among APOBEC3H polymorphisms (hap I-VII) and splicing variants (SV-200, SV-183, SV-182, and SV-154), hap II SV-183 showed the strongest restriction activity. These data suggest that the genetic variations in APOBEC3 genes may affect the efficiency of HBV elimination in humans.

BackgroundAn outbreak of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)-associated respiratory infectious diseases (COVID-19) emerged in 2019 and has spread rapidly in humans around the world. The demonstration of in vitro infectiousness of respiratory specimens is an informative surrogate for SARS-CoV-2 transmission from patients with COVID-19; accordingly, viral isolation assays in cell culture are an important aspect of laboratory diagnostics for COVID-19.MethodsWe developed a simple and rapid protocol for isolating SARS-CoV-2 from respiratory specimens using VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells, a cell line that is highly susceptible to the virus. We also investigated a correlation between isolation of SARS-CoV-2 and viral load detected by real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) using N2 primer/probe set that has been developed for testing of COVID-19 in Japan.ResultsThe SARS-CoV-2 isolation protocol did not require blind passage of inoculated cells and yielded the results of viral isolation within 7 days after inoculation. Specimens with cycle threshold (Ct) values of 35 were virus isolation-positive, indicating that low viral loads (high Ct values) in upper respiratory specimens do not always indicate no risk of containing transmissible virus.ConclusionIn combination with rRT-PCR, the SARS-CoV-2 isolation protocol provides a means for assessing the potential risk of transmissible virus in upper respiratory specimens.

金沢大学医薬保健研究域医学系, Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations are found in many types of cancers and suspected to be involved in carcinogenesis, although the mechanism has not been elucidated. In this study, we report that consecutive C-to-T mutations (hypermutations), a unique feature of mutations induced by APOBECs, are found in mtDNA from cervical dysplasia and oropharyngeal cancers. In vitro, we found that APOBEC3A (A3A) and 3B (A3B) expression, as well as mtDNA hypermutation, were induced in a cervical dysplastic cell line W12 when cultured in a differentiating condition. The ectopic expression of A3A or A3B was sufficient to hypermutate mtDNA. Fractionation of W12 cell lysates and immunocytochemical analysis revealed that A3A and A3B could be contained in mitochondrion. These results suggest that mtDNA hypermutation is induced upon keratinocyte differentiation, and shed light on its molecular mechanism, which involves A3s. The possible involvement of mtDNA hypermutations in carcinogenesis is also discussed. © 2018 The Author(s).

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is essential for the somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class-switch recombination (CSR) of Ig genes. The mechanism by which AID triggers SHM and CSR has been explained by two distinct models. In the DNA deamination model, AID converts cytidine bases in DNA into uridine. The uridine is recognized by the DNA repair system, which produces DNA strand breakages and point mutations. In the alternative model, RNA edited by AID is responsible for triggering CSR and SHM. However, RNA deamination by AID has not been demonstrated. Here we found that C-to-T and G-to-A mutations accumulated in hepatitis B virus (HBV) nucleocapsid DNA when AID was expressed in HBV-replicating hepatic cell lines. AID expression caused C-to-T mutations in the nucleocapsid DNA of RNase H-defective HBV, which does not produce plus-strand viral DNA. Furthermore, the RT-PCR products of nucleocapsid viral RNA from AID-expressing cells exhibited significant C-to-T mutations, whereas viral RNAs outside the nucleocapsid did not accumulate C-to-U mutations. Moreover, AID was packaged within the nucleocapsid by forming a ribonucleoprotein complex with HBV RNA and the HBV polymerase protein. The encapsidation of the AID protein with viral RNA and DNA provides an efficient environment for evaluating AID’s RNA and DNA deamination activities. A bona fide RNA-editing enzyme, apolipoprotein B mRNA editing catalytic polypeptide 1, induced a similar level of C-to-U mutations in nucleocapsid RNA as AID. Taken together, the results indicate that AID can deaminate the nucleocapsid RNA of HBV.

金沢大学医薬保健研究域医学系, Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is one of the major etiological pathogens for liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Chronic HBV infection is a key factor in these severe liver diseases. During infection, HBV forms a nuclear viral episome in the form of covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). Current therapies are not able to efficiently eliminate cccDNA from infected hepatocytes. cccDNA is a master template for viral replication that is formed by the conversion of its precursor, relaxed circular DNA (rcDNA). However, the host factors critical for cccDNA formation remain to be determined. Here, we assessed whether one potential host factor, flap structure-specific endonuclease 1 (FEN1), is involved in cleavage of the flap-like structure in rcDNA. In a cell culture HBV model (Hep38.7-Tet), expression and activity of FEN1 were reduced by siRNA, shRNA, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing, and a FEN1 inhibitor. These reductions in FEN1 expression and activity did not affect nucleocapsid DNA (NC-DNA) production, but did reduce cccDNA levels in Hep38.7-Tet cells. Exogenous overexpression of wild-type FEN1 rescued the reduced cccDNA production in FEN1-depleted Hep38.7-Tet cells. Anti-FEN1 immunoprecipitation revealed the binding of FEN1 to HBV DNA. An in vitro FEN activity assay demonstrated cleavage of 5′-flap from a synthesized HBV DNA substrate. Furthermore, cccDNA was generated in vitro when purified rcDNA was incubated with recombinant FEN1, DNA polymerase, and DNA ligase. Importantly, FEN1 was required for the in vitro cccDNA formation assay. These results demonstrate that FEN1 is involved in HBV cccDNA formation in cell culture system, and that FEN1, DNA polymerase, and ligase activities are sufficient to convert rcDNA into cccDNA in vitro.

The prevalence of human papillomavirus (HPV)-related oropharyngeal cancers has been increasing in developed countries. We recently demonstrated that members of the apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing catalytic polypeptide 3 (APOBEC3, A3) family, which are antiviral factors, can induce hypermutation of HPV DNA in vitro. In the present study, we found numerous C-to-T and G-to-A hypermutations in the HPV16 genome in oropharyngeal cancer (OPC) biopsy samples using differential DNA denaturation PCR and next-generation sequencing. A3s were more abundantly expressed in HPV16-positive OPCs than in HPV-negative, as assessed using immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription quantitative PCR. In addition, interferons upregulated A3s in an HPV16-positive OPC cell line. Furthermore, quantitative PCR analysis of HPV DNA suggests that APOBEC3A (A3A) expression is strongly correlated with the integration of HPV DNA. These results suggest that HPV16 infection may upregulate A3A expression, thereby increasing the chance of viral DNA integration. The role of A3A in HPV-induced carcinogenesis is discussed.

Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) is a major cause of cervical cancer. We previously demonstrated that C-to-T and G-to-A hypermutations accumulated in the HPV16 genome by APOBEC3 expression in vitro. To investigate in vivo characteristics of hypermutation, differential DNA denaturation-PCR (3D-PCR) was performed using three clinical specimens obtained from HPV16-positive cervical dysplasia, and detected hypermutation from two out of three specimens. One sample accumulating hypermutations in both E2 and the long control region (LCR) was further subjected to Next-Generation Sequencing, revealing that hypermutations spread across the LCR and all early genes. Notably, hypermutation was more frequently observed in the LCR, which contains a viral replication origin and the early promoter. APOBEC3 expressed abundantly in an HPV16-positive cervix, suggesting that single-stranded DNA exposed during viral replication and transcription may be efficient targets for deamination. The results further strengthen a role of APOBEC3 in introducing HPV16 hypermutation in vivo.

Persistent infection with oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) causes cervical cancer. However, viral genetic changes during cervical carcinogenesis are not fully understood. Recent studies have revealed the presence of adenine/thymine-clustered hypermutation in the long control region of the HPV16 genome in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) lesions, and suggested that apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC) proteins, which play a key role in innate immunity against retroviral infection, potentially introduce such hypermutation. This study reports for the first time the detection of adenine/thymine-clustered hypermutation in the E2 gene of HPV16 isolated from clinical specimens with low- and high-grade CIN lesions (CIN1/3). Differential DNA denaturation PCR, which utilizes lower denaturation temperatures to selectively amplify adenine/thymine-rich DNA, identified clusters of adenine/thymine mutations in the E2 gene in 4 of 11 CIN1 (36.4%), and 6 of 27 CIN3 (22.2%) samples. Interestingly, the number of mutations per sample was higher in CIN3 than in CIN1. Although the relevance of E2 hypermutation in cervical carcinogenesis remains unclear, the observed hypermutation patterns strongly imply involvement of APOBEC3 proteins in editing the HPV16 genome during natural viral infection.

Problem APOBEC3G (A3G) is a cytidine deaminase that exhibits antiviral activity by introducing C-to-T hypermutation in viral DNA. We recently observed the distinct presence of C-to-T hypermutation of human papillomavirus DNA in uterine cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), suggesting the possible involvement of A3G in the mutation-inducing process. Consequently, we investigated the association of A3G expression with CIN progression in this study. Method of study Patients who had undergone cervical conization due to CIN1 (n=11), CIN2 (n=9), CIN3 (n=12), and micro-invasive squamous cell carcinoma (n=2) were included. The expression profiles of A3G and p16 proteins in cervical lesions and A3G-positive immune cells around the lesions were examined by immunohistochemistry. Results Immunoreactive A3G protein was detected in the CIN and squamous cell carcinoma lesions. Its expression intensity and positive areas were increased and spread in accordance with the progression of CIN, respectively. The co-expression of p16 was observed on the A3G-positive atypical cells. The numbers of A3G-positive immune cells in CIN3 lesions were significantly higher than those of CIN1-2 lesions. Conclusion These findings indicate that A3G is associated with CIN, suggesting its important roles in human papillomavirus-induced pathophysiological processes such as CIN progression and viral elimination.

Apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC) proteins are cellular DNA/RNA-editing enzymes that play pivotal roles in the innate immune response to viral infection. APOBEC3 (A3) proteins were reported to hypermutate the genome of human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16), the causative agent of cervical cancer. However, hypermutation did not affect viral DNA maintenance, leaving the exact role of A3 against HPV infection elusive. Here we examine whether A3 proteins affect the virion assembly using an HPV16 pseudovirion (PsV) production system, in which PsVs are assembled from its capsid proteins L1/L2 encapsidating a reporter plasmid in 293FT cells. We found that co-expression of A3A or A3C in 293FT cells greatly reduced the infectivity of PsV. The reduced infectivity of PsV assembled in the presence of A3A, but not A3C, was attributed to the decreased copy number of the encapsidated reporter plasmid. On the other hand, A3C, but not A3A, efficiently bound to L1 in co-immunoprecipitation assays, which suggests that this physical interaction may lead to reduced infectivity of PsV assembled in the presence of A3C. These results provide mechanistic insights into A3s’ inhibitory effects on the assembly phase of the HPV16 virion.

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β inhibits hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication although the intracellular effectors involved are not determined. Here, we report that reduction of HBV transcripts by TGF-β is dependent on AID expression, which significantly decreases both HBV transcripts and viral DNA, resulting in inhibition of viral replication. Immunoprecipitation reveals that AID physically associates with viral P protein that binds to specific virus RNA sequence called epsilon. AID also binds to an RNA degradation complex (RNA exosome proteins), indicating that AID, RNA exosome, and P protein form an RNP complex. Suppression of HBV transcripts by TGF-β was abrogated by depletion of either AID or RNA exosome components, suggesting that AID and the RNA exosome involve in TGF-β mediated suppression of HBV RNA. Moreover, AID-mediated HBV reduction does not occur when P protein is disrupted or when viral transcription is inhibited. These results suggest that induced expression of AID by TGF-β causes recruitment of the RNA exosome to viral RNP complex and the RNA exosome degrades HBV RNA in a transcription-coupled manner., Author Summary HBV is one of the causative factors of hepatocellular carcinoma. Recent studies have shown that the members of the APOBEC deaminase family are antiviral factors that suppress the replication of viruses, such as HIV-1 and HBV. APOBEC3G suppresses viral replication by either hypermutation of nascent DNA or inhibition of reverse transcription. Recent studies have been suggested that AID, another APOBEC family member, restricts viruses and retrotransposons that use reverse transcription for their replication. However, little is known about the antiviral mechanisms of AID. TGF-β is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in the suppression of HBV replication, but the mechanism underlying its anti-HBV activity is unclear. In this study, we found that AID plays a role in the anti-HBV activity of TGF-β. Further study revealed that AID physically associates with a viral RNP complex containing reverse transcriptase and recruits the RNA degradosome (RNA exosome) to the RNP complex to degrade the viral RNA. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to reveal a novel antiviral pathway in which AID triggers viral RNA degradation by tethering the RNA exosome to the viral reverse transcriptase/RNA complex. Viral RNA may be another target for APOBEC antiviral activity.

Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing catalytic polypeptide 3 (APOBEC3) proteins are interferon (IFN)-inducible antiviral factors that counteract various viruses such as hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) by inducing cytidine (C)-to-uracil (U) mutations in viral DNA and inhibiting reverse transcription. However, whether APOBEC3 proteins (A3s) can hypermutate human papillomavirus (HPV) viral DNA and exhibit antiviral activity in human keratinocyte remains unknown. Here we examined the involvement of A3s in the HPV life cycle using cervical keratinocyte W12 cells, which are derived from low-grade lesions and retain episomal HPV16 genomes in their nuclei. We focused on the viral E2 gene as a potential target for A3-mediated hypermutation because this gene is frequently found as a boundary sequence in integrated viral DNA. Treatment of W12 cells with beta interferon (IFN-β) increased expression levels of A3s such as A3A, A3F, and A3G and induced C-to-U conversions in the E2 gene in a manner depending on inhibition of uracil DNA glycosylase. Exogenous expression of A3A and A3G also induced E2 hypermutation in W12 cells. IFN-β-induced hypermutation was blocked by transfection of small interfering RNAs against A3G (and modestly by those against A3A). However, the HPV16 episome level was not affected by overexpression of A3A and A3G in W12 cells. This study demonstrates that endogenous A3s upregulated by IFN-β induce E2 hypermutation of HPV16 in cervical keratinocytes, and a pathogenic consequence of E2 hypermutation is discussed.

V(D)J recombination of Ig and TCR genes is strictly regulated in a lineage- and stage-specific manner by the accessibility of target gene chromatin to the recombinases RAG1 and RAG2. It has been shown that enforced expression of the basic helix–loop–helix protein, E2A, together with RAG1/2 in a nonlymphoid cell line BOSC23 can induce V(D)J recombination in endogenous Igκ and TCR loci by increasing chromatin accessibility of target gene segments. In this study, we demonstrate that ectopically expressed E2A proteins in BOSC23 cells have the ability to bind directly to the promoter and recombination signal sequence of Vκ genes and to recruit histone acetyltransferase CBP/p300. Overexpression of CBP/p300 in conjunction with E2A results in enhancement of E2A-induced histone acetylation, germline transcription, and Igκ rearrangement. Conversely, knockdown of endogenous CBP/p300 expression by small interfering RNA leads to a decrease in histone acetylation, germline transcription and Igκ rearrangement. Furthermore, analyses using a mouse pre-B cell line revealed that endogenous E2A proteins also bind to a distinct set of Vκ genes and regulatory regions in the mouse Igκ locus and act to increase histone acetylation by recruiting p300, confirming the similar findings observed with BOSC23 cells. These observations indicate that E2A plays critical roles in inducing Igκ rearrangement by directly binding to and increasing chromatin accessibility at target gene segments.