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Background Cognition-based theories dominate physical activity (PA) research, and many include a construct broadly defined as “beliefs about the consequences of behavior” (e.g., outcome expectancies, perceived benefits) hereafter referred to as perceived consequences. Purpose With the quantity of available research on this topic, it is important to examine whether the literature supports perceived consequences as a predictor of PA. Methods A meta-analysis examining longitudinal associations between perceived consequences and PA in adults was conducted. Studies were eligible if (a) perceived consequences were measured at a time point prior to PA, and (b) the target behavior was a form of PA. An omnibus meta-analysis estimating the mean effect of all included studies, and separate meta-analyses for perceived consequences content categories were conducted. Results This search yielded 6,979 articles, of these, 110 studies met inclusion criteria. Studies were published between 1989 and 2020, with sample sizes ranging from 16 to 2,824. All studies were evaluated as moderate to high quality. A small positive bivariate association was identified (r = 0.11; 95% CI [0.09, 0.13]) between perceived consequences and PA. Significant associations were identified for time, health, self-evaluative, psychological, and affective consequences. There was no association between perceived weight-related consequences and PA. Conclusions The findings emphasize the variability with which existing studies have examined perceived consequences in the PA literature. Future research might examine whether these are important distinctions for understanding PA. Overall, the results suggest utility in examining perceived consequences as a predictor of PA, but constructs with more robust associations may require priority.

Background Daily decisions to exercise may be influenced by day-to-day changes in affective attitudes (AA) and instrumental attitudes (IA) toward exercise. However, the within-day association between AA, IA, and exercise behavior has received little attention. Purpose To examine the effects of more temporally proximal (daily) AA and IA on daily exercise behavior beyond traditionally assessed distal (at the beginning of an exercise program) AA and IA. Methods In the context of a 3-month exercise promotion program (N = 50), distal AA and IA were assessed at baseline. Ecological momentary assessment was used to assess proximal AA, IA, and exercise each day. Results Between-subject differences in distal AA (OR = 1.28, p = .03) and distal IA (OR = 1.34, p = .01) were predictive of average likelihood of exercise each day over the 3-month period. Within-subject differences in proximal AA (OR = 1.19, p = .007), but not proximal IA (OR = 1.11, p = .18), predicted exercise each day beyond the between-subjects effects of distal AA and IA. Exploratory analysis revealed an interaction, such that the within-subjects impact of proximal AA on daily exercise was most evident among individuals who held more negative distal AA at baseline (OR = 0.80, p < .0001). Conclusions Attitude type (affective versus instrumental) and temporality (distal versus proximal) are important to consider in attempts to predict and understand exercise behavior. In addition to targeting change in distal attitudes, exercise interventions should target changes in daily AA to impact exercise later in the same day.

Perceptions of the physical and social environment have been shown to be predictive of physical activity (PA) behavior. However, the mechanisms of this association have not been examined. OBJECTIVE: Affective response to PA was examined as a putative mediator of the association between perceptions of the PA environment and subsequent PA behavior. METHODS: As part of a PA promotion pilot study, 59 low-active overweight or obese but otherwise healthy adults completed real-time assessments of the perceived physical and social PA environment, affective response to PA, and PA behavior over a 6-month period. RESULTS: As hypothesized, decreased latency to and greater duration of subsequent PA was predicted by engaging in PA with a partner (b=17.24, SE=.45, p

Standard measures of self-efficacy (SE) may confound perceived capability and motivation because respondents interpret the word “can” as “will”. Objective: To test whether priming for the meaning o...

Cigarette smoking remains the leading behavioral risk factor for chronic disease and premature mortality. This RCT tested the efficacy of moderate intensity aerobic exercise as an adjunctive smoking cessation treatment among women. Participants (N = 105; age = 42.5, SD = 11.2) received brief smoking cessation counseling and 10 weeks of nicotine replacement therapy and were randomized to 12 weeks of moderate intensity exercise (Exercise; n = 53) or 12 weeks of health education (Control; n = 52). Longitudinal models, with Generalized Estimating Equations, showed no differences between Exercise and Control in cotinine-verified 7-day point prevalence abstinence (Wald = 1.96, p = 0.10) or continuous abstinence (Wald = 1.45, p = 0.23) at 12-weeks (post-treatment) or 6-, 9-, or 12-month follow-up, controlling for differences in baseline nicotine dependence. There was no effect of exercise on smoking cessation. The present study adds to the literature suggesting null effects of exercise as a smoking cessation adjunctive treatment despite promising findings in short-term laboratory based studies.

Objective: The present study tested the hypothesis that the effect of self-paced exercise on adherence to exercise programs is more pronounced with increasing age. Method: Fifty-nine low-active overweight adults (18-65 years) were encouraged to walk 30 to 60 min/day and randomized to either self-paced ( n = 30) or prescribed moderate-intensity ( n = 29) conditions. Results: The effect of study condition was moderated by age (main effect: b = 6.14, SE = 2.54, p = .02; Condition × Age: b = −11.55, SE = 3.77, p < .01), such that among participants >50 years, those in the self-paced condition exercised 6 more min/day than participants in the prescribed moderate-intensity condition ( p = .02), whereas among participants

Regular physical activity (PA) enhances weight-loss and reduces risk of chronic disease. However, as few as 10% of U.S. adults engage in regular PA. Incentive programs to promote PA have shown some promise, but have typically used incentives that are too large to sustain over time and have not demonstrated habit formation or been tested in community settings. This report presents the rationale and design of a randomized pilot study testing the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of small monetary incentives for PA (n = 25) versus charitable donations in the same amount (n = 25) versus control (n = 25) over 12 months among 75 low-active but otherwise healthy adults at a local YMCA. Incentives are based on YMCA attendance, which is verified by electronic swipe card data and is the primary study outcome, with self-reported minutes/week of PA assessed as a secondary outcome. Incentives are intentionally small enough—$1/session, maximum of $5/week—such that they could be indefinitely sustained by community organizations, privately-owned health clubs, healthcare organizations, or employers (e.g., employer fitness facilities). Costs of the incentive program for the sponsoring organization may be partially offset by increases in membership resulting from the appeal of the program. Moreover, if efficacious, the charitable donation incentive program may have the added benefit of building social capital for the sponsoring organization and potentially serving as a tax write-off, thus further offsetting the cost of the incentives. Findings will also have implications for the use of financially sustainable community-based incentive programs for other health-related behaviors (e.g., weight loss, smoking).

Objective To pilot test two low-cost and thus financially sustainable incentive programs to promote physical activity (PA) among low-active adults in a community setting. Method In a three-arm randomized controlled trial the effects of small monetary incentives (cash incentives $1/day; n = 25) were compared to charitable donations (donation $1/day; n = 25) and a control group (n = 25) on PA behavior over the course of 12 months in insufficiently active, otherwise healthy adults. Incentives were based on attendance at a local YMCA. Electronic swipe card data from the YMCA was the primary outcome, with self-reported minutes of PA as a secondary outcome. Results Quantile regression models showed promising effects of treatment allocation on the primary outcome (attendance) adjusted for age and employment. There was a difference between cash incentives and control conditions such that median attendance in the cash incentives condition was 19.24 visits more over 12 months (b = 19.24; SE = 8.26, 95% CI [2.75, 35.72]). There was a similar though only marginally significant trend for the donation condition showing that participants in the donation condition made 11.88 additional visits to the YMCA over 12 months relative to the control condition (b = 11.88, SE = 8.41,95% CI [-0.91, 28.67]). There was a significant correlation between objectively verified YMCA attendance and self-reported moderate-to-vigorous PA at the YMCA (ρ = 0.587) over 12 months. Conclusions These promising findings provide early support for small monetary incentives and charitable donations for promoting PA in community settings. Further research on the efficacy of using financially sustainable incentive programs, including charitable donations, for PA through community organizations (e.g., YMCAs) seems warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Over the past seventy years, biomedical and epidemiological research has shown that regular physical activity (PA) is critical for physical and mental health. Despite this knowledge, physical inactivity is the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality, accounting for 9% (5.3 million) of premature deaths annually. We suggest this mismatch between knowing about the risks of PA and engaging in regular PA can be reconciled by focusing less on expected health benefits of PA and more on how people feel during PA. Specifically, in this position paper, we argue that affective response (feeling good versus bad) to PA is an intermediate phenotype that can explain significant variance in PA behavior and is, in turn, a function of genetic variability. In making this argument, we first review empirical evidence showing that affective response to PA predicts future physical activity behavior. Second, we systematically review research on single nucleotide morphisms (SNPs) that are associated with affective response to PA. Investigating affective response to PA as an intermediate phenotype will allow future researchers to move beyond asking "What SNPs are associated with PA?", and begin asking "How do these SNPs influence PA?", thus ultimately optimizing the translation of knowledge gained from genomic data to intervention development.

Background Behavioral lifestyle intervention (BLI) is recommended as a first-line treatment for obesity. While BLI has been adapted for online delivery to improve potential for dissemination while reducing costs and barriers to access, weight losses are typically inferior to gold standard treatment delivered in-person. It is therefore important to refine and optimize online BLI in order to improve the proportion of individuals who achieve a minimum clinically significant weight loss and mean weight loss. Study design Five experimental intervention components will be tested as adjuncts to an established 12-month online BLI: virtual reality for BLI skills training, interactive video feedback, tailored intervention to promote physical activity, skills for dysregulated eating, and social support combined with friendly competition. Following the Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) framework, the components will first be refined and finalized during Preparation Phase pilot testing and then evaluated in a factorial experiment with 384 adults with overweight or obesity. A priori optimization criteria that balance efficacy and efficiency will be used to create a finalized treatment package that produces the best weight loss outcomes with the fewest intervention components. Mediation analysis will be conducted to test hypothesized mechanisms of action and a moderator analysis will be conducted to understand for whom and under what circumstances the interventions are effective. Conclusion This study will provide important information about intervention strategies that are useful for improving outcomes of online BLI. The finalized treatment package will be suitable for testing in a future randomized trial in the MOST Evaluation Phase.

Objectives Research has demonstrated that health outcomes are significantly improved with the application of financial incentives. However, relatively larger incentives are not typically sustainable and removal of incentives tends to result in attrition of behavior. The feasibility of using relatively smaller incentives to improve physical activity is unclear. The aim of the present study is to determine whether small financial incentives (maximum $5.00 per week) can improve exercise-related energy expenditure of inactive individuals. Methods Twenty-two university students (20 ±1.6 years old) were randomized into incentive or non-incentive conditions. Exercise-related caloric expenditure was tracked over 10 weeks. Results The sample size yielded 62% power. The repeated measures ANCOVA, controlling for body mass index, indicated a main effect of condition (F = 5.50, p =.03) with no significant interaction (F = 2.25, p = .06). Conclusions This pilot study demonstrates initial feasibility in implementing small financial incentives to promote exercise behavior in previously inactive young adults. Due to the small sample size, results should be interpreted with caution and further research is warranted to improve and maintain exercise behavior in response to relatively smaller incentives.

Previous research suggests that how people feel throughout the course of a day (i.e. incidental affect) is predictive of exercise behaviour. A mostly separate literature suggests that exercise can lead to more positive incidental affect.This study examines the potential reciprocal effects of incidental affect and exercise behaviour within the same day.Fifty-nine low-active (exercise 60 min/week), overweight (BMI: 25.0-39.9) adults (ages 18-65) participated in a six-month print-based exercise promotion programme.Ecological momentary assessment was used to record self-reported exercise sessions in real time and incidental affective valence (feeling good/bad) as assessed by the 11-point Feeling Scale at random times throughout the day.Use of a within-subjects cross-lagged, autoregressive model showed that participants were more likely to exercise on days when they experienced more positive incidental affect earlier in the day (b = .58, SE = .10, p .01), and participants were more likely to experience more positive incidental affect on days when they had exercised (b = .26, SE = .03, p .01), with the former association significantly stronger than the latter (t = 23.54, p .01).The findings suggest a positive feedback loop whereby feeling good and exercising are reciprocally influential within the course of a day.

National guidelines call for exercise of at least moderate intensity; however, recommending self-paced exercise may lead to better adherence, particularly among overweight and obese adults. The purpose of this study was to test proof-of-concept for recommending self-paced exercise among overweight adults. Fifty-nine healthy, low-active (exercise

Aerobic exercise has been proposed as a stand-alone or adjunct smoking cessation treatment, but findings have been mixed. Laboratory studies have shown that individual exercise sessions lead to decreases in withdrawal symptoms and cigarette cravings, but findings are limited by lack of follow-up and artificial settings. On the other hand, smoking cessation treatment RCTs have generally failed to show positive effects of exercise on smoking cessation, but have been plagued by poor and/or unverified compliance with exercise programs. This paper describes the rationale and design for Quit for Health (QFH)--an RCT designed to determine the efficacy of aerobic exercise as an adjunct smoking cessation treatment among women. To overcome limitations of previous research, compliance with the exercise (and wellness contact control) program is incentivized and directly observed, and ecological momentary assessment is used to examine change over time in withdrawal symptoms and cigarette cravings in participants' natural environments.

Affective response to exercise may mediate the effects of self-paced exercise on exercise adherence. Fiftynine low-active (exercise f2 = 0.02); (b) effects of affective response on duration/latency of the next exercise session (path b = 0.47, SE = 0.25, f2 = 0.04); and (c) indirect effects of experimental condition on exercise outcomes via affective response (path ab = 0.11, SE = 0.06, f2 = 0.10). Results provide modest preliminary support for a mediational pathway linking self-paced exercise, affective response, and exercise adherence.