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The non-absorbable disaccharide lactulose is mostly used in the treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders such as chronic constipation and hepatic encephalopathy. The mechanism of action of lactulose remains unclear, but it elicits more than osmotic laxative effects. As a prebiotic, lactulose may act as a bifidogenic factor with positive effects in preventing and controlling diabetes. In this review, we summarized the current evidence for the effect of lactulose on gut metabolism and type 2 diabetes (T2D) prevention. Similar to acarbose, lactulose can also increase the abundance of the short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium as well as suppress the potentially pathogenic bacteria Escherichia coli. These bacterial activities have anti-inflammatory effects, nourishing the gut epithelial cells and providing a protective barrier from microorganism infection. Activation of peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) can influence secondary bile acids and reduce lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxins. A low dose of lactulose with food delayed gastric emptying and increased the whole gut transit times, attenuating the hyperglycemic response without adverse gastrointestinal events. These findings suggest that lactulose may have a role as a pharmacotherapeutic agent in the management and prevention of type 2 diabetes via actions on the gut microbiota.

In developed countries, diabetes is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and accounts for 50% of incidence of end stage kidney disease. Despite declining prevalence of micro- and macrovascular complications, there are rising trends in renal replacement therapy in diabetes. Optimal glycemic control may reduce risk of progression of CKD and related death. However, assessing glycemic control in patients with advanced CKD and on dialysis (G4-5) can be challenging. Laboratory biomarkers, such as glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), may be biased by abnormalities in blood haemoglobin, use of iron therapy and erythropoiesis-stimulating agents and chronic inflammation due to uraemia. Similarly, glycated albumin and fructosamine may be biased by abnormal protein turnover. Patients with advanced CKD exhibited heterogeneity in glycemic control ranging from severe insulin resistance to ‘burnt-out’ beta-cell function. They also had high risk of hypoglycaemia due to reduced renal gluconeogenesis, frequent use of insulin and dysregulation of counterregulatory hormones. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems measure glucose in interstitial fluid every few minutes and provide an alternative and more reliable method of glycemic assessment, including asymptomatic hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemic excursions. Recent international guidelines recommended use of CGM-derived Glucose Management Index (GMI) in patients with advanced CKD although data are scarce in this population. Using CGM, patients with CKD were found to experience marked glycemic fluctuations with hypoglycemia due to loss of glucose and insulin during haemodialysis (HD) followed by hyperglycemia in the post-HD period. On the other hand, during peritoneal dialysis, patients may experience glycemic excursions with influx of glucose from dialysate solutions. These undesirable glucose exposure and variability may accelerate decline of residual renal function. Although CGM may improve the quality of glycemic monitoring and control in populations with CKD, further studies are needed to confirm the accuracy, optimal mode and frequency of CGM as well as their cost-effectiveness and user-acceptability in patients with advanced CKD and dialysis.

OBJECTIVES To determine whether geriatric hip fractures can be managed effectively within a level 1 trauma center. DESIGN A prospective observational cohort study with a historical control group. SETTING Level 1 trauma center. PATIENTS A total of 199 patients admitted under our hip fracture service were prospectively identified from 2011-2012. These were compared with 191 hip fracture patients who were admitted before the service. INTERVENTION The hip fracture service includes coadmission under an orthopaedic and a geriatric team. A daily, consultant-led operating list was made available for hip fracture surgery. A "neck of femur" nurse was employed to coordinate patient care. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS Time to surgery, length of stay, discharge destination, and mortality. A cost-benefit analysis and a comparison with a lower acuity hospital were also performed. RESULTS Since the hip fracture service, more patients underwent surgery within 48 hours (67% vs. 52%; P = 0.004), the length of stay significantly decreased from 26 to 22 days (P = 0.004), significantly more patients were admitted to the rehabilitation unit (58.7% vs. 3.5%; P < 0.001) and ultimately discharged to their own residence (51.6% vs. 40.5%; P = 0.034). Inpatient mortality rates did not change significantly (7.5% vs. 6.8%; P = 0.780). The estimated cost saving in 2011 was $981,040. CONCLUSIONS Only minor changes are required to significantly improve the management of geriatric hip fracture patients. These patients can be managed effectively within a level 1 trauma center when an organized service prioritizing these patients is used. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic level III. See Instructions for authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Guidelines for the surgical treatment of cutaneous primary malignant melanoma are well established; however, the approach to the treatment of the regional lymph nodes remains more controversial. In many centres, sentinel lymph node biopsy has been adopted as routine in the treatment of malignant melanoma for prognostic purposes, as it is not of proven therapeutic benefit. The Multicentre Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial II aims to determine the comparative benefits of subsequent completion lymphadenectomy versus observation in those found to have a positive sentinel node biopsy. Until results are available, the risks of the procedure must be weighed against the value of prognostic information gained from performing a sentinel node biopsy. In this retrospective analysis of sentinel lymph node biopsies at our institution, we show that in general, short-term morbidity associated with this procedure is low, but that morbidity is higher in a subgroup of people with higher weight or body mass index, and in those whose biopsy is located in the groin.

The aims of this research were to characterise the injury patterns associated with nail guns, highlight their potential complications and review treatment options.A retrospective case series was conducted of all patients with a nail gun injury to the upper or lower limb who presented to the Princess Alexandra Hospital from 1 January 2007 to 30 July 2012.Young men in the work environment were at most risk of sustaining a nail gun injury to their non-dominant hand. Out of 87 cases identified, 29% were intra-articular, 16% had evidence of neurovascular injury, 24% involved bone and 37% had evidence of tendon injury. Fifty-eight per cent underwent operative management, 32% were treated solely in the ED and 10% were transferred to a private facility. At the time of operation, 14% of cases had tendon, joint or neurovascular involvement and 20% had retained foreign material. The median length of operation was 17 min and no anaesthetic complications were identified. Four (13%) patients had ongoing pain, paraesthesia or stiffness at the time of follow up.The present study characterises the injury patterns caused by nail guns. Treatment of these injuries should be based on clinical findings; however, the majority of cases should undergo surgical treatment. The required operation is a short and safe treatment modality that might allow a thorough assessment of the injury, removal of embedded material, repair of structural damage and a sterile washout to be performed.

Purpose Carotid artery stenting is a relatively new intervention for the treatment of carotid artery stenosis, and the long-term outcomes and complications are therefore yet to be determined. In one surgeon's practice, it was found that a stent fracture was the etiological factor for recurrent stenosis. A retrospective study was therefore performed with the hypothesis that carotid stent fractures are common. The aims were to determine prevalence of fractures in this surgeon's series, risk factors, and most importantly, clinical relevance. Methods Patients from one surgeon's private practice who had carotid stenosis deemed suitable for intervention (>80% asymptomatic, >70% symptomatic, 50% to 70% if an ulcerated lesion) and had suitable aortic and carotid morphology for carotid stenting between March 2004 and December 2006 were included. To enhance the quality of the measurement, two vascular surgeons and one radiologist examined the films independently to determine if there was a fracture present. Given that this was a retrospective study, there was no preconceived sample size determined. Results Fracture prevalence was found to be 29.2% or 14 out of 48 stents. Restenosis occurred in 21% of those stents with a detected fracture, after an average follow-up of 15 months. Several anetiological factors are proposed, with a finding in this series, of a strong and significant association between the presence of calcified vessels and the presence of fractures (odds ratio 7.7; standard error 5.6; 95% confidence interval 1.9-32.0, P =.003). Conclusions Although this is a small study, it demonstrates that carotid stent fractures do exist, and importantly, not all of them are benign. Therefore, the authors recommend regular surveillance with plain radiography in addition to duplex ultrasonography to enable early detection of fracturing. Following detection, institution of increased surveillance frequency and/or any appropriate intervention can be implemented, to aid in the prevention of complications resulting from restenosis should it become apparent.

Most aneurysms can be effectively managed using endovascular coiling or microsurgical clipping, but in an acute subarachnoid haemorrhage where there are multiple aneurysms identified, a sequential multimodal approach may prove more beneficial. This report involves a 31-year-old man who presented with sudden onset of severe headache and photophobia. A computed tomography brain scan revealed a diffuse grade II subarachnoid haemorrhagic pattern, and four-vessel angiography revealed two aneurysms: a right middle cerebral artery bifurcation aneurysm measuring 12 × 8 mm and a 4-mm basilar artery aneurysm associated with a fenestration at the confluence of the vertebral arteries. It was not possible to determine which aneurysm or aneurysms were responsible for the haemorrhage using the customary criteria. The patient underwent sequential endovascular coiling of the vertebrobasilar aneurysm without delay, followed immediately by microsurgical clipping of the right middle cerebral artery aneurysm, under a single anaesthetic. The postoperative course was uneventful. This method is a treatment option for acute subarachnoid haemorrhage where there are multiple aneurysms. It is a logical progression of management that could be employed at any experienced neurovascular centre; the employment of a sequential multimodal approach from the integration of these techniques is beneficial to the patient because it decreases morbidity and mortality.

The aim of this study was to determine diabetes care processes and intermediate clinical outcomes in a remote primary care service in 2009 compared with 2004. A retrospective review of diabetes care from January 2009 to January 2010 was conducted using a chronic disease register (Project Ferret). Completeness of ascertainment was verified by a manual audit of charts. The results from this audit were compared with a similar study conducted in this community in 2004. The main outcome measure was diabetic management: in terms of (a) regular monitoring of diabetic care processes, and (b) compliance with national optimal management guidelines and comparison with diabetic outcomes data from a 2004 audit and the National data from 2009. People with diabetes on the register increased from 60 in 2004 to 77 in 2009. They were younger and heavier with a shorter duration of diagnosed diabetes. Recording of diabetic care processes in 2009 decreased between 5 and 32% compared with 2004 data. Intermediate clinical measures (e.g. glycosylated haemoglobin, blood pressure, triglycerides, albumin creatinine ratio) indicate stable or poorer diabetic control across all measures except total cholesterol. When compared with non-Indigenous diabetics, diabetes is diagnosed earlier and rates of smoking, hypertension, dyslipidaemia and diabetic nephropathy are higher in this population. Insulin use appears to be lower in the study population than reported in the national sample. Improved diabetic care processes and outcomes reported from 1999 to 2003 have not been sustained, and intermediate clinical measures have become more adverse over a 5 year period in this high risk remote community. Chronic care systems, including quality improvement, require renewed investment. Refereed/Peer-reviewed