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Background Appropriate malaria management is a key malaria control strategy. The objective of this study was to determine health care worker adherence levels to malaria case management guidelines in the Busoga sub-region, Uganda. Methods Health facility assessments, health care worker (HCW), and patient exit interview (PEI) surveys were conducted at government and private health facilities in the sub-region. All health centres (HC) IVs, IIIs, and a sample of HC IIs, representative of the tiered structure of outpatient service delivery at the district level were targeted. HCWs at these facilities were eligible for participation in the study. For PEIs, 210 patients of all ages presenting with a history of fever for outpatient care at selected facilities in each district were targeted. Patient outcome measures included testing rates, adherence to treatment, dispensing and counselling services as per national guidelines. The primary outcome was appropriate malaria case management, defined as the proportion of patients tested and only prescribed artemether-lumefantrine (AL) if positive. HCW readiness (e.g., training, supervision) and health facility capacity (e.g. availability of diagnostics and anti-malarials) to provide malaria case management were also assessed. Data were weighted to cater for the disproportionate representation of HC IIs in the study sample. Results A total of 3936 patients and 1718 HCW from 392 facilities were considered in the analysis. The median age of patients was 14 years; majority (63.4%) females. Most (70.1%) facilities were HCIIs and 72.7% were owned by the government. Malaria testing services were available at > 85% of facilities. AL was in stock at 300 (76.5%) facilities. Of those with a positive result, nearly all were prescribed an anti-malarial, with AL (95.1%) accounting for most prescriptions. Among those prescribed AL, 81.0% were given AL at the facility, lowest at HC IV (60.0%) and government owned (80.1%) facilities, corresponding to AL stock levels. Overall, 86.9% (95%CI 79.7, 90.7) of all enrolled patients received appropriate malaria case management. However, only 50.7% (21.2, 79.7) of patients seen at PFPs received appropriate malaria management. Conclusion Adherence levels to malaria case management guidelines were good, but with gaps noted mainly in the private sector. The supply chain for AL needs to be strengthened. Interventions to improve practise at PFP facilities should be intensified.

Children with sickle cell anemia (SCA) have a high predisposition to a range of infections and gastrointestinal disorders. Studies of children living in low income countries have shown high levels of infection withWe aimed to describe the prevalence and factors associated withA cross-sectional study was conducted on 340 children with SCA aged 5-18 years. Assessments included recurrent abdominal pain(RAP), dyspeptic symptoms, relevant medical and social histories. Stool samples were collected and an antigen test carried out to determine

BACKGROUND: Atypical bacteria cause 10–40% of all childhood community-acquired pneumonia and severe disease in children under 5 years of age. Data on the burden of atypical pneumonia in sub-Saharan Africa are limited. AIM: To determine the prevalence, associated factors, and outcome of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in children presenting with respiratory symptoms at Mulago National Referral Hospital, Kampala. METHODS: Children aged 2 months to 12 years who presented with cough and/or difficult breathing and fast breathing were recruited. A clinical history and physical examination were undertaken. Blood samples were taken at enrolment (Day 0) and on Day 21 to determine the presence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM antibodies, and induced sputum for DNA-PCR. Admitted participants were followed for a maximum of 7 days or until discharge or death, whichever came first. RESULTS: A total of 385 children were enrolled, and, of these, 368 (95.6%) were

Background Worldwide, two million babies are stillborn and 1.8 million babies die before completing seven days of life. Approximately 4% of pregnant women in Uganda experience perinatal death. The response following a perinatal death tends to be socio-culturally constructed. Investigating the unique personal experiences of parents from a low-income setting with unique cultural beliefs and practices is crucial for the design and implementation of appropriate interventions. Objective To describe the lived experiences of parents following perinatal death in Lira district, Northern Uganda. Methods A qualitative study was carried out drawing on the tenets of descriptive phenomenology. We conducted 32 in-depth interviews in Lira district, Northern Uganda between August 2019 and September 2020 with 18 women and 14 men who had experienced a stillbirth or an early neonatal death within the preceding 2 years. Participants were selected from different families and interviewed. A local IRB approved the study. All in-depth interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, translated, and data were analysed using a content thematic approach. Key findings were discussed based on Worden’s Four Tasks of Mourning theory. Results The themes that emerged from the analyses included reaction to the perinatal loss and suggestions for support. The participants’ immediate reactions were pain, confusion, and feelings of guilt which were aggravated by the unsupportive behaviour of health care providers. Men cumulatively lost financial resources in addition to facing multiple stressful roles. Delayed reactions such as pain and worries were triggered by the sight of similar-age-babies, subsequent pregnancy losses, and marital challenges. Participants recommended emotional support and management of postnatal complications for parents faced with perinatal loss. Conclusion Losing a baby during the perinatal period in a resource-constrained setting negatively affected both gender. In addition, men suffered the loss of financial resources and the burden of multiple stressful roles. Acknowledging the pain and offering support to the grieving parents reinforce their coping with a perinatal loss. In addition to family and community members, health care providers need to provide emotional support and postnatal care to parents who experience perinatal death.

Background Birth asphyxia is one of the leading causes of neonatal mortality worldwide. In Uganda, it accounts for 28.9% of all neonatal deaths. With a view to inform policy and practice interventions to reduce adverse neonatal outcomes, we aimed to determine the prevalence and factors associated with birth asphyxia at two referral hospitals in Northern Uganda. Methods This was a cross-sectional study, involving women who gave birth at two referral hospitals. Women in labour were consecutively enrolled by the research assistants, who also attended the births and determined Apgar scores. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, pregnancy history and care during labour, were obtained using a structured questionnaire. Participants were tested for; i) malaria (peripheral and placental blood samples), ii) syphilis, iii) white blood cell counts (WBC), and iv) haemoglobin levels. The prevalence of birth asphyxia was determined as the number of newborns with Apgar scores p-value Results A total of 2,930 mother-newborn pairs were included, and the prevalence of birth asphyxia was 154 [5.3% (95% confidence interval: 4.5- 6.1)]. Factors associated with birth asphyxia were; maternal age ≤ 19 years [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.92 (1.27–2.91)], syphilis infection [aOR 2.45(1.08–5.57)], and a high white blood cell count [aOR 2.26 (1.26–4.06)], while employment [aOR 0.43 (0.22–0.83)] was protective. Additionally, referral [aOR1.75 (1.10–2.79)], induction/augmentation of labour [aOR 2.70 (1.62–4.50)], prolonged labour [aOR 1.88 (1.25–2.83)], obstructed labour [aOR 3.40 (1.70–6.83)], malpresentation/ malposition [aOR 3.00 (1.44–6.27)] and assisted vaginal delivery [aOR 5.54 (2.30–13.30)] were associated with birth asphyxia. Male newborns [aOR 1.92 (1.28–2.88)] and those with a low birth weight [aOR 2.20 (1.07–4.50)], were also more likely to develop birth asphyxia. Conclusion The prevalence of birth asphyxia was 5.3%. In addition to the known intrapartum complications, teenage motherhood, syphilis and a raised white blood cell count were associated with birth asphyxia. This indicates that for sustained reduction of birth asphyxia, appropriate management of maternal infections and improved intrapartum quality of care are essential.

Background: Annually, an estimated 20 million (13%) low-birthweight (LBW) and 15 million (11.1%) preterm infants are born worldwide. A paucity of data and reliance on hospital-based studies from low-income countries make it difficult to quantify the true burden of LBW and PB, the leading cause of neonatal and under-five mortality. We aimed to determine the incidence and risk factors for LBW and preterm birth in Lira district of Northern Uganda. Methods: This was a community-based cohort study, nested within a cluster-randomized trial, designed to study the effect of a combined intervention on facility-based births. In total, 1877 pregnant women were recruited into the trial and followed from 28 weeks of gestation until birth. Infants of 1556 of these women had their birthweight recorded and 1279 infants were assessed for preterm birth using a maturity rating, the New Ballard Scoring system. Low birthweight was defined as birthweight

Background The neonatal mortality rate in Uganda has barely changed over the past decades, estimated at 28/1000 and 27/1000 live births in 2006 and 2016 respectively. The survivors have a higher risk of developing neurodevelopmental disabilities (NDD) due to brain insults from perinatal complications related to poor quality of health services during pregnancy, around the time of birth, and during the postnatal period. This study aimed to assess health facility readiness to care for high risk newborn babies in order to inform programming that fosters early childhood development in eastern Uganda. Methods A cross sectional study of 6 hospitals and 10 higher level health centers that offer comprehensive maternal and newborn care was carried out in February 2020 in eastern Uganda. A World Health Organization Service Availability and Readiness Assessment tool (SARA) was adapted and used to assess the health facility readiness to manage maternal and neonatal conditions that are related to NDD. In addition, 201 mothers of high risk newborn babies were interviewed on their satisfaction with health services received. Readiness scores were derived from percentage average facilities with available infrastructure and essential medical commodities to manage neonatal complications. Descriptive statistics were computed for client satisfaction with service provision, and p values used to compare private not for profit to public health facilities. Results There was limited availability in numbers and skilled human resource especially the neonatal nurses. Hospitals and health centers scored least in preterm and hypothermia care, with averages of 38% and 18% respectively. The highest scores were in essential newborn care, with readiness of 78% and 85% for hospitals and health centers, followed by resuscitation at 78% and 77%, respectively. There were no guidelines on positive interaction with newborn babies to foster neurodevelopment. The main cause of admission to neonatal care units was birth asphyxia followed by prematurity, indicative of intrapartum care challenges. The overall client satisfaction with health services was higher in private not for profit facilities at 91% compared to public hospitals at 73%, p = 0.017. Conclusion Health facility readiness was inadequate in management of preterm complications. Efforts should, therefore, be geared to improving availability of inputs and quality of emergency obstetric and newborn care in order to manage high risk newborns and reduce the burden of NDD in this setting.

High-grade malignancy is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa and is prone to the spontaneous tumour lysis syndrome. However, data on spontaneous tumour lysis syndrome remain scanty in our setting. We sought to determine the prevalence and factors associated with laboratory spontaneous tumour lysis syndrome in children in Uganda. We conducted a cross-sectional study among children 1.2 mg/dl were associated with laboratory spontaneous tumour lysis syndrome. However, only bulky disease was significantly predictive of laboratory spontaneous tumour lysis syndrome. Such children would benefit from routine screening.

Biomass smoke exposure is a threat to child and maternal health in many resource-limited countries and is associated with poor pregnancy outcomes and serious lung diseases in the offspring. We aimed to assess the feasibility, acceptability and impact of a midwife-led education programme on biomass risks and prevention for women attending maternity clinics in Uganda. Education materials were co-developed through an iterative process by midwives and other stakeholders. The materials were serially tested and approved by the Ministry of Health and used by midwives and village health teams (VHTs). The district health team, 12 midwives and 40 VHTs were sensitised on biomass smoke. Two hundred and forty-four women were educated about biomass smoke by midwives; pre- and post-session questionnaires showed major improvements in knowledge of biomass smoke risks. Qualitative interviews with women three months after the sessions showed that they made behavioural changes such as avoiding smoke while cooking, using dry wood, solar power for lighting and improved ventilation. The major barrier to behavioural changes was poverty, but some improvements cost no money. The programme delivered by midwives was feasible and acceptable; implementing this programme has the potential to reduce exposure to smoke with major benefits to mother, foetus, and children throughout their lives.

Introduction Globally, acute lower respiratory infections are the leading cause of mortality among children under 5 years. Following World Health Organization primary care guidelines, pneumonia is diagnosed based on cough/difficult breathing and fast breathing. We aimed to describe the practices of healthcare workers in primary care health facilities in Uganda in the management of young children with respiratory symptoms especially regarding asthma as opposed to pneumonia. Methods Health workers were observed during clinical consultations with children 1–59 months of age presenting with cough and/or difficult breathing at recruitment. Afterward, an exit interview with the caregiver was conducted. Health center availability of clinical guidelines, equipment and supplies for management of children with respiratory symptoms was assessed systematically. Results A total of 218 consultations with 50 health workers at six health centers were included. Median consultation time was 4 min. Health workers asked history relevant to distinguishing asthma from pneumonia in 16% of consultations. The respiratory rate was counted in 10%. Antibiotics were prescribed to 32% of all the children and to 39% of children diagnosed with pneumonia. Caregivers reported being informed of findings and possible diagnosis in 5% of cases. Medicine and equipment needed for diagnosing and treating asthma were generally unavailable. Conclusion Clinical practices among Ugandan health workers in primary care are insufficient to distinguish between main causes of respiratory symptoms, especially asthma as opposed to pneumonia, in children under five. Irrational use of antibiotics is widespread. Clear communication with caregivers is lacking. This could be due to lack of relevant competencies, medicines, time and supplies. Lay summary Globally, the most frequent cause of death for children under five is infections in the lower airways. The World Health Organization recommends that in local health clinics this is defined as cough/difficult breathing and fast breathing. This article focuses on the practices of local health workers in Uganda and how they in practice diagnose and treat children under five with these symptoms. In addition, we try to estimate how much the caregivers of the children understand from the consultation. This is done by observing the healthcare workers (HCWs) and by interviewing the caregivers. In general, we found that the consultations were too short, that too few of the health workers looked for important signs for lower airways disease such as fast breathing and that antibiotics were prescribed in too many of the consultations. Also, the length and quality of the consultations and the supplies at the local health clinics were not sufficient to diagnose and treat asthma, which can often be mistaken for an infection. We believe that it is an important problem that too few children with asthma are being diagnosed correctly and that antibiotics are being prescribed too frequently, the latter being an important cause of antibiotic resistance. Relevant action must be taken to improve this.

BackgroundAccording to WHO ( CISMAC. Centre for Intervention Science in Maternal and Child health), the antimicrobial resistant bacteria considered to be clinically most important for human health and earmarked for surveillance include extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producingEnterobacteriaceae,carbapenem-resistant bacteria, methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and, macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B -resistant vancomycin-resistant (VRSA)Staphylococcus aureusand vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus(VRE). If these bacteria are carried in the female genital tract, they may be transmitted to the neonate causing local or systemic neonatal infections that can be difficult to treat with conventionally available antimicrobials. In order to develop effective treatment strategies, there is need for updated information about the prevalence of colonization with important antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.ObjectiveWe sought to estimate the prevalence of vaginal colonization with potentially pathogenic and clinically important AMR bacteria among women in labour in Uganda and to identify factors associated with colonization.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study among HIV-1 and HIV-2 negative women in labour at three primary health care facilities in Uganda. Drug susceptibility testing was done using the disk diffusion method on bacterial isolates cultured from vaginal swabs. We calculated the prevalence of colonization with potentially pathogenic and clinically important AMR bacteria, in addition to multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, defined as bacteria resistant to antibiotics from ≥ 3 antibiotic classes.ResultsWe found that 57 of the 1472 enrolled women (3.9% prevalence; 95% Confidence interval [CI] 3.0%, 5.1%) were colonized with ESBL-producingEnterobacteriaceace,27 (1.8%; 95% CI 1.2%, 2.6%) were colonized with carbapenem-resistantEnterobacteriaceae, and 85 (5.8%; 95% CI 4.6%, 7.1%) were colonized with MRSA. The prevalence of colonization with MDR bacteria was high (750/1472; 50.9%; 95% CI 48.4%, 53.5%). Women who were ≥ 30 years of age had higher odds of being colonized with MDR bacteria compared to women aged 20–24 years (OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.1, 2.2).ConclusionMost of the women included in our study were vaginally colonized with potentially pathogenic MDR and other clinically important AMR bacteria. The high prevalence of colonization with these bacteria is likely to further increase the incidence of difficult-to-treat neonatal sepsis.

Background Birth asphyxia is one of the leading causes of intrapartum stillbirth and neonatal mortality worldwide. We sought to explore the experiences of health care workers in managing foetal distress and birth asphyxia to gain an understanding of the challenges in a low-income setting. Methods We conducted in-depth interviews with 12 midwives and 4 doctors working in maternity units from different health facilities in Northern Uganda in 2018. We used a semi-structured interview guide which included questions related to; health care workers’ experiences of maternity care, care for foetal distress and birth asphyxia, views on possible preventive actions and perspectives of the community. Audio recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using inductive content analysis. Results Four categories emerged: (i) Understanding of and actions for foetal distress and birth asphyxia including knowledge, misconception and interventions; (ii) Challenges of managing foetal distress and birth asphyxia such as complexities of the referral system, refusal of referral, lack of equipment, and human resource problems, (iii) Expectations and blame from the community, and finally (iv) Health care worker’ insights into prevention of foetal distress and birth asphyxia. Conclusion Health care workers described management of foetal distress and birth asphyxia as complex and challenging. Thus, guidelines to manage foetal distress and birth asphyxia that are specifically tailored to the different levels of health facilities to ensure high quality of care and reduction of need for referral are called for. Innovative ways to operationalise transportation for referral and community dialogues could lead to improved birth experiences and outcomes.

ObjectiveTo determine the prevalence, predictors and case fatality risk of hypothermia among neonates in Lira district, Northern Uganda.SettingThree subcounties of Lira district in Northern Uganda.DesignThis was a community-based cross-sectional study nested in a cluster randomised controlled trial.ParticipantsMother–baby pairs enrolled in a cluster randomised controlled trial. An axillary temperature was taken during a home visit using a lithium battery-operated digital thermometer.Primary and secondary outcomesThe primary outcome measure was the prevalence of hypothermia. Hypothermia was defined as mild if the axillary temperature was 36.0°C to ResultsWe recruited 1330 neonates. The prevalence of hypothermia (ConclusionThe prevalence of neonatal hypothermia was very high, demonstrating that communities in tropical climates should not ignore neonatal hypothermia. Interventions designed to address neonatal hypothermia should consider ways of reaching neonates born at home and those with low birth weight. The promotion of early breastfeeding initiation and skin-to-skin care could reduce the risk of neonatal hypothermia.Trial registration numberClinicalTrial.gov as NCT02605369.

BackgroundImmune control of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is impaired in individuals with HIV. We explored maternal factors associated with EBV acquisition in HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants and the relationship between EBV infection and serious adverse events (SAEs) during the first year of life.Methods201 HEU infants from Uganda enrolled in the ANRS 12174 trial were tested for antiviral capsid antigen (anti-VCA) antibodies at week 50. Date of infection was estimated by testing EBV DNA at weeks 1, 6, 14, 26, 38, and 50 postpartum on dried blood spots.ResultsEighty-seven (43%) infants tested positive for anti-VCA IgG at week 50. Among the 59 infants positive for EBV DNA, 25% were infected within the first 26 weeks. Almost half (12%) were infected before week 14. Shedding of EBV in breast milk was associated with EBV DNA in maternal plasma (P = .009), HIV RNA detection (P = .039), and lower CD4 count (P = .001) and correlated with plasma EBV DNA levels (P = .002). EBV infant infection at week 50 was associated with shedding of EBV in breast milk (P = .009) and young maternal age (P = .029). Occurrence of a clinical SAE, including malaria and pneumonia, was associated with higher levels of EBV DNA in infants (P = .010).ConclusionsBy assessing EBV infection in HEU infants we observed that infection during the first year is determined by HIV and EBV maternal factors and that EBV DNA levels were higher among infants with clinical SAEs.Clinical Trials RegistrationNCT00640263.

Background: Perinatal mortality in Uganda remains high at 38 deaths/1,000 births, an estimate greater than the every newborn action plan (ENAP) target of ≤24/1,000 births by 2030. To improve perinatal survival, there is a need to understand the persisting risk factors for death. Objective: We determined the incidence, risk factors, and causes of perinatal death in Lira district, Northern Uganda. Methods: This was a community-based prospective cohort study among pregnant women in Lira district, Northern Uganda. Female community volunteers identified pregnant women in each household who were recruited at ≥28 weeks of gestation and followed until 50 days postpartum. Information on perinatal survival was gathered from participants within 24 hours after childbirth and at 7 days postpartum. The cause of death was ascertained using verbal autopsies. We used generalized estimating equations of the Poisson family to determine the risk factors for perinatal death. Results: Of the 1,877 women enrolled, the majority were ≤30 years old (79.8%), married or cohabiting (91.3%), and had attained only a primary education (77.7%). There were 81 perinatal deaths among them, giving a perinatal mortality rate of 43/1,000 births [95% confidence interval (95% CI: 35, 53)], of these 37 were stillbirths (20 deaths/1,000 total births) and 44 were early neonatal deaths (23 deaths/1,000 live births). Birth asphyxia, respiratory failure, infections and intra-partum events were the major probable contributors to perinatal death. The risk factors for perinatal death were nulliparity at enrolment (adjusted IRR 2.7, [95% CI: 1.3, 5.6]) and maternal age >30 years (adjusted IRR 2.5, [95% CI: 1.1, 5.8]). Conclusion: The incidence of perinatal death in this region was higher than had previously been reported in Uganda. Risk factors for perinatal mortality were nulliparity and maternal age >30 years. Pregnant women in this region need improved access to care during pregnancy and childbirth. publishedVersion

Introduction Oral bicarbonate solution is known to improve both maternal and perinatal outcomes among women with abnormal labour (dystocia). Its effectiveness and safety among women with obstructed labour is not known. Objective To determine the effect and safety of a single-dose preoperative infusion of sodium bicarbonate on maternal and fetal blood lactate and clinical outcomes among women with obstructed labour (OL) in Mbale hospital. Methods We conducted a double blind, randomised controlled trial from July 2018 to September 2019. The participants were women with OL at term (≥37 weeks gestation), carrying a singleton pregnancy with no other obstetric emergency, medical comorbidity or laboratory derangements. Intervention A total of 477 women with OL were randomized to receive 50ml of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate (238 women) or 50 mL of 0.9% sodium chloride (239 women). In both the intervention and controls arms, each participant was preoperatively given a single dose intravenous bolus. Every participant received 1.5 L of normal saline in one hour as part of standard preoperative care. Outcome measures Our primary outcome was the mean difference in maternal venous blood lactate at one hour between the two arms. The secondary outcomes were umbilical cord blood lactate levels at birth, neonatal sepsis and early neonatal death upto 7 days postnatal, as well as the side effects of sodium bicarbonate, primary postpartum hemorrhage, maternal sepsis and mortality at 14 days postpartum. Results The median maternal venous lactate was 6.4 (IQR 3.3–12.3) in the intervention and 7.5 (IQR 4.0–15.8) in the control group, with a statistically non-significant median difference of 1.2 mmol/L; p-value = 0.087. Vargha and Delaney effect size was 0.46 (95% CI 0.40–0.51) implying very little if any effect at all. Conclusion The 4.2g of preoperative intravenous sodium bicarbonate was safe but made little or no difference on blood lactate levels. Trial registration PACTR201805003364421.

In the ANRS 12174 trial, HIV-exposed uninfected African neonates who received lopinavir-ritonavir (LPV/r) prophylaxis for 1 year exhibited slower growth from birth to week 50 compared with those receiving lamivudine (3TC). We assessed whether this difference in growth persisted over time, and was accompanied by differences in neuropsychological and clinical outcomes. Between February 2017 and February 2018, we conducted a cross-sectional clinical evaluation among former trial participants who completed the 50-week follow-up and who were not HIV-infected. In addition to clinical examination, neuropsychological outcomes were assessed using the tests Kaufman-ABCII, Test of Variables of Attention, Movement Assessment Battery for Children and the Strengths and Difficulties questionnaire, parent version. Of 1101 eligible children, aged 5–7 years, 553 could be traced and analysed (274 in the LPV/r and 279 in the 3TC groups). Growth, clinical and neuropsychological outcomes did not differ between treatment groups. At school age, children exposed to LPV/r and 3TC at birth for 1 year had comparable growth and neuropsychological outcomes without evidence of long-term side-effects of LPV/r. It provides reassuring data on clinical outcomes for all HIV-infected children treated with this antiretroviral drug in early life.

Background Home delivery has been associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV and remains high among HIV-infected women. Predictors for home delivery in the context of HIV have not been fully studied and understood in Northern Uganda. We therefore aimed to find out the incidence and risk factors for home delivery among women living with HIV in Lira, Northern Uganda. Methods This prospective cohort study was conducted between August 2018 and January 2020 in Lira district, Northern Uganda. A total of 505 HIV infected women receiving antenatal care at Lira regional referral hospital were enrolled consecutively and followed up at delivery. We used a structured questionnaire to obtain data on exposures which included: socio-demographic, reproductive-related and HIV-related characteristics. Data was analysed using Stata version 14.0 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, U.S.A.). We estimated adjusted risk ratios using Poisson regression models to ascertain risk factors for the outcome of interest which was home delivery (which is delivering an infant outside a health facility setting under the supervision of a non-health worker). Results The incidence of home delivery among women living with HIV was 6.9% (95%CI: 4.9–9.5%). Single women were more likely to deliver at home (adjusted risk ratio = 4.27, 95%CI: 1.66–11). Women whose labour started in the night (night time onset of labour ARR = 0.39, 95%CI: 0.18–0.86) and those that were adherent to their ART (ARR = 0.33, 95%CI: 0.13–0.86) were less likely to deliver at home. Conclusion Home delivery remains high among women living with HIV especially those that do not have a partner. We recommend intensified counselling on birth planning and preparedness in the context of HIV and PMTCT especially for women who are: separated, divorced, widowed or never married and those that are not adherent to their ART.

Background Low-level private health facilities (LLPHFs) handle a considerable magnitude of sick children in low-resource countries. We assessed capacity of LLPHFs to manage malaria, pneumonia, diarrhea, and, possible severe bacterial infections (PSBIs) in under-five-year-olds. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional survey in 110 LLPHFs and 129 health workers in Mbarara District, Uganda between May and December 2019. Structured questionnaires and observation forms were used to collect data on availability of treatment guidelines, vital medicines, diagnostics, and equipment; health worker qualifications; and knowledge of management of common childhood infections. Results Amoxicillin was available in 97%, parental ampicillin and gentamicin in 77%, zinc tablets and oral rehydration salts in >90% while artemether-lumefantrine was available in 96% of LLPHF. About 66% of facilities stocked loperamide, a drug contraindicated in the management of diarrhoea in children. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests and microscopes were available in 86% of the facilities, timers/clocks in 57% but only 19% of the facilities had weighing scales and 6% stocked oxygen. Only 4% of the LLPHF had integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) booklets and algorithm charts for management of common childhood illnesses. Of the 129 health workers, 52% were certificate nurses/midwives and (26% diploma nurses/clinical officers; 57% scored averagely for knowledge on management of common childhood illnesses. More than a quarter (38%) of nursing assistants had low knowledge scores. No notable significant differences existed between rural and urban LLPHFs in most parameters assessed. Conclusion Vital first-line medicines for treatment of common childhood illnesses were available in most of the LLPHFs but majority lacked clinical guidelines and very few had oxygen. Majority of health workers had low to average knowledge on management of the common childhood illnesses. There is need for innovative knowledge raising interventions in LLPHFs including refresher trainings, peer support supervision and provision of job aides.

Background With the under-five child mortality rate of 46.4 deaths per 1000 live births, Uganda should accelerate measures to reduce child deaths to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal 3. While 60-70% of frontline health services are provided by the private sector, many low-level private health facilities (LLPHF) are unregistered, unregulated, and often miss innovative and quality improvement strategies rolled out by the Ministry of Health. LLPHF need support in order to provide quality health care. Objective To explore the perspectives of health workers and policy makers on external support given to LLPHF providing health care for children in Mbarara District, Uganda. Methods We carried out a qualitative study, in which 43 purposively selected health workers and policy makers were interviewed. The issues discussed included their views on the quantity, quality, factors determining support received and preferred modalities of support to LLPHF. We used thematic analysis, employing an inductive approach to code interview transcripts and to identify subthemes and themes. Results The support currently provided to LLPHF to manage childhood illnesses is inadequate. Health providers emphasised a need for technical capacity building, provision of policies, guidelines and critical supplies as well as adopting a more supportive supervisory approach instead of the current supervision model characterised by policing, fault finding and apportioning blame. Registration of the health facilities and regular submission of reports as well as multi-stakeholder involvement are potential strategies to improve external support. Conclusion The current support received by LLPHF is inadequate in quantity and quality. Capacity building with emphasis on training, provision of critical guidelines and supplies as well as and supportive supervision are key strategies for delivering appropriate external support to LLPHF.

Background Complications due to prematurity are a threat to child survival and full developmental potential particularly in low-income settings. Objective The aim of the study was to determine the neurodevelopmental outcomes among preterm infants and identify any modifiable factors associated with neurodevelopmental disability (NDD) Methods We recruited 454 babies (242 preterms with birth weight

Background: In Uganda, perinatal mortality is 38 per 1000 pregnancies. One-third of these deaths are due to birth asphyxia. Adequate fetal heart rate (FHR) monitoring during labor may detect birth asphyxia but little is known about monitoring practices in low resource settings. Objective: To explore FHR monitoring practices among health workers at a public hospital in Northern Uganda. Methods: A sequential explanatory mixed methods study was conducted by reviewing 251 maternal records and conducting 11 interviews and two focus group discussions with health workers complemented by observations of 42 women in labor until delivery. Quantitative data were summarized using frequencies and percentages. Content analysis was used for qualitative data. Results: FHR was assessed in 235/251 (93.6%) of records at admission. Health workers documented the FHR at least once in 175/228 (76.8%) of cases during the first stage of labor compared to observed 17/25 (68.0%) cases. Median intervals between FHR monitoring were 30 (IQR 30–120) minutes in patients’ records versus 139 (IQR 87–662) minutes according to observations. Observations suggested no monitoring of FHR during the second stage of labor but records indicated monitoring in 3.2% of cases. Reported barriers to adequate FHR monitoring were inadequate number of staff and monitoring devices, institutional challenges such as few beds, documentation problems and perceived non-compliant women not reporting for repeated checks during the first stage of labor. Health workers demonstrated knowledge of national FHR monitoring guidelines and acknowledged that practice was different. Conclusions: When compared to national and international guidelines, FHR monitoring is sub-optimal in the studied setting. Approximately one in four women was not monitored during the first stage of labor. Barriers to appropriate FHR monitoring included shortage of staff and devices, institutional challenges and mother’s negative attitudes. These barriers need to be addressed in order to reduce neonatal mortality.

Sickle cell disease is an important public health issue that is increasingly recognised as a substantial contributor to morbidity and early childhood mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. We aimed to provide information from large-scale, long-term sickle cell screening efforts in Africa.We used nationally representative data from the centralised public health laboratory database in Uganda to examine epidemiological trends in sickle cell screening over a five-year period, comparing age and geographic adjustments to prevalence among different testing cohorts of children aged 0-24 months, and calculating screening coverage within high-burden districts.A total of 324 356 children aged 0-24 months were screened for sickle cell trait and disease from February 2014 to March 2019. A high national burden of sickle cell disease (0.9%) was confirmed among a cohort of samples co-tested with HIV. In the cohort of samples referred specifically for sickle cell testing, the overall prevalence of sickle cell disease was 9.7% and particularly elevated in high-burden districts where focused screening occurred. The majority of children were screened before age 4 months, but the sickle-specific cohort had a larger proportion of affected children tested between age 5-9 months, coincident with onset of disease signs and symptoms. Successful screening coverage of sickle cell disease births was achieved in several high-burden districts.Examination and analysis of national sickle cell screening trends in Uganda documents the successes of focused screening strategies as an important step towards universal screening. With this evidence and increased healthcare provider knowledge, Uganda can optimise sickle cell diagnosis and management across the country.La drépanocytose est un problème important de santé publique, de plus en plus reconnu comme un contributeur important à la morbidité et à la mortalité infantile en Afrique subsaharienne. Notre objectif était de fournir des informations sur les efforts de dépistage de la drépanocytose à grande échelle et à long terme en Afrique. MÉTHODES: Nous avons utilisé des données représentatives nationales de la base de données centralisée des laboratoires de santé publique en Ouganda pour examiner les tendances épidémiologiques dans le dépistage de la drépanocytose sur une période de cinq ans, en comparant l'âge et les ajustements géographiques à la prévalence dans différentes cohortes de tests d'enfants âgés de 0 à 24 mois, et en estimant la couverture du dépistage dans les districts à forte charge. RÉSULTATS: Un total de 324.356 enfants âgés de 0 à 24 mois ont été dépistés pour le trait drépanocytaire et la maladie de février 2014 à mars 2019. Une charge nationale élevée de la drépanocytose (0,9%) a été confirmée dans une cohorte d'échantillons co-testés pour le VIH. Dans la cohorte d'échantillons référés spécifiquement pour le dépistage de la drépanocytose, la prévalence globale de la drépanocytose était de 9,7% et particulièrement élevée dans les districts à forte charge où un dépistage ciblé avait eu lieu. La majorité des enfants ont été dépistés avant l'âge de 4 mois, mais la cohorte spécifique pour la drépanocytose avait une plus grande proportion d'enfants affectés testés entre l'âge de 5 à 9 mois, coïncidant avec l'apparition des signes et symptômes de la maladie. Une bonne couverture de dépistage des naissances drépanocytaires a été obtenue dans plusieurs districts à forte charge.L'examen et l'analyse des tendances nationales du dépistage de la drépanocytose en Ouganda documentent les succès des stratégies de dépistage ciblé comme une étape importante vers le dépistage universel. Grâce à ces données et à une meilleure connaissance des prestataires de soins de santé, l'Ouganda peut optimiser le diagnostic et la prise en charge de la drépanocytose dans tout le pays.

Prevention of unintended pregnancies is a global strategy to eliminate mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Factors surrounding unintended pregnancy among women living with HIV are not well understood. We aimed to determine the prevalence and predictors for unintended pregnancy among these women in Northern Uganda. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among 518 women using a structured questionnaire. We asked questions on socio-demographic, reproductive-related and HIV-related characteristics. We conducted multivariable logistic regression and reported adjusted odds ratios. The prevalence of unintended pregnancy was 41.1%. The predictors for unintended pregnancy were: being single (not living with a partner or being in a marital union), having five or more children and taking antiretroviral drugs for long periods of time. HIV counselling services should target women living with HIV who are not in a marital union, those having a higher parity and those who have taken ART for longer periods.

Background Early initiation and exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months reduces infant morbidity and mortality and can positively impact on cognitive function. In Uganda, exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months is recommended but many women introduce alternative feeds early. Interventions to scale-up peer support provision for exclusive breastfeeding are limited. We explored the barriers, facilitators and solutions to scaling-up of peer counselling support for exclusive breastfeeding in Uganda. Methods A qualitative study was conducted in Mbale District and Kampala City between April and July 2014. Data were collected through 15 key informant interviews with health workers and managers of organizations involved in child and maternal health as well as seven focus group discussions with peer counsellors who took part in the PROMISE EBF Trial (2006–2008), VHT members, mothers and fathers of children aged 1 year and below. Data were analysed using the content thematic approach. Results The need for peer support for exclusive breastfeeding, especially for young and first-time mothers, was highlighted by most study participants. While mothers, mothers-in-law, friends and husbands were mentioned as major stakeholders regarding infant feeding, they were perceived to lack adequate information on breastfeeding. Health workers were mentioned as a key source of support, but their constraints of heavy workloads and lack of education materials on breastfeeding were highlighted. High community expectations of peer counsellors, the perceived inadequacy of breast milk, general acceptability of complimentary feeding, household food insecurity, heavy workload for women and unsupportive ‘work-places’ were key barriers to scaling-up of peer counselling support for breastfeeding. The peer counsellors who were part of the PROMISE EBF trial in Mbale, the village health team programme, health facilities, community groups, the media and professional associations emerged as potential facilitators that can aid the scaling-up of peer counselling support for breastfeeding. Conclusions Peer support for breastfeeding is highly valued in this setting. The health system and health workers are regarded as the main facilitators to scaling-up of peer support for exclusive breastfeeding. Partnerships with village health teams (VHTs), community groups, role models, professional associations and the media are other potential facilitators to this scaling-up.

BackgroundSub-optimal adherence to infant prophylaxis has been associated with mother-to-child-transmission of HIV. However, the factors associated have not been well characterised in different settings. This study describes barriers and enablers of adherence to infant prophylaxis among 6-week-old HIV exposed infants in Lira district, Northern Uganda.MethodsThis prospective cohort study was conducted from 2018-2020 at the PMTCT clinic at Lira Regional Referral Hospital and included 472 mother-infant pairs. HIV-infected pregnant women were recruited, followed up at delivery and 6 weeks postpartum. We used a structured questionnaire to obtain data on socio-demographic, reproductive-related, HIV-related characteristics and adherence. Data were analysed using Stata to estimate adjusted risk ratios using Poisson regression models to ascertain barriers and enablers of adherence to infant nevirapine prophylaxis.ResultsBarriers to infant adherence are maternal characteristics including: younger age (≤20 years adjusted risk ratio (ARR) = 1.55; 95% CI: 1.1-2.2), missing a viral load test during pregnancy (ARR: 1.4; 95% CI: 1.1-1.7) and not receiving nevirapine syrup for the baby after childbirth (ARR = 6.2; 95% CI: 5.1-7.6). Enablers were: having attained ≥14 years of schooling (ARR = 0.7; 95% CI: 0.5-0.9), taking a nevirapine-based regimen (ARR = 0.6; 95% CI: 0.4-0.9), long-term ART (≥ 60 months ARR = 0.75; 95% CI: 0.6-0.9), accompanied by a husband to hospital during labour and childbirth (ARR = 0.5; 95% CI: 0.4-0.7) and labour starting at night (ARR = 0.7; 95% CI: 0.6-0.8).Conclusion and recommendationsDespite mothers receiving nevirapine syrup from the health workers for the infant, non-adherence rates still prevail at 14.8%. The health system needs to consider giving HIV infected pregnant women the nevirapine syrup before birth to avoid delays and non-adherence. There is need to pay particular attention to younger women and those who recently started ART.

Background Sepsis is the third most common cause of death among neonates, with about 225,000 newborns dying every year globally. Data concerning the microbial etiology of neonatal sepsis and antimicrobial resistance profiles of its causative agents are necessary to inform targeted and effective treatment and prevention strategies. Objective To determine the proportion of newborns with symptoms and signs of sepsis who had a positive blood culture, its bacterial etiology, the antimicrobial resistance patterns as well as the factors associated with culture-positivity and case fatality at Mulago national referral hospital in Uganda. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study among 359 neonates with symptoms and signs of sepsis who presented to the pediatric emergency care unit of Mulago national referral hospital from mid-January to end of December 2018. We performed blood culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and conducted polymerase chain reaction to identify methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate the association between potential risk factors and culture-positive neonatal sepsis. Findings Of the 359 neonates recruited, 46 (12.8%; 95% CI 9.5%, 16.7%) had a positive blood culture. The predominant isolated bacteria were Staphylococcus aureus in 29 (63.0%), Escherichia coli in seven (15.2%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae in five (10.9%). Of the 46 pathogens, 73.9% were resistant to ampicillin, 23.9% to gentamicin and 8.7% to ceftriaxone. We isolated MRSA from the blood specimens of 19 (5.3%) of the 359 neonates, while 3 (0.8%) grew extended spectrum beta lactamase producers. The case fatality risk among neonates with neonatal sepsis was 9.5% (95% CI: 6.6%, 13.0%). Cesarean section delivery was strongly associated with culture-positive sepsis (adjusted odds ratio 3.45, 95% CI: 1.2, 10.1). Conclusion One in eight neonates with clinical signs of sepsis grew a likely causative bacterial pathogen. S. aureus was the main pathogen isolated and a third of these isolates were MRSA. A significant proportion of the isolated bacterial pathogens were resistant to the first and second line antibiotics used for the treatment of neonatal sepsis. There is need to revisit the current treatment guidelines for neonatal sepsis. publishedVersion

Background: Skilled birth attendants must be competent to provide prompt resuscitation to save newborn lives at birth. Both knowledge and skills (competence) decline with time after training but the optimal duration for refresher training among frontline-skilled birth attendants in low-resource settings is unknown. Objectives: We assessed the effect of an innovative Helping-Babies-Breathe simulation-based teaching method using video-debriefing compared to standard Helping-Babies-Breathe training on 1) neonatal resuscitation knowledge and skills attainment and 2) competence retention among skilled birth attendants in Northern Uganda. Methods: A total of 26 health facilities with 86 birth attendants were equally randomised to intervention and control arms. The 2nd edition of the American Association of Pediatrics Helping-Babies-Breathe curriculum was used for training and assessment. Knowledge and skills were assessed pre- and post-training, and during follow-up at 6 months. A mixed effects linear regression model for repeated measures was used to assess the short and long-term effects of the intervention on neonatal resuscitation practices while accounting for clustering. Results: Eighty-two (95.3%) skilled birth attendants completed follow-up at 6 months. Approximately 80% of these had no prior Helping-Babies-Breathe training and 75% reported practicing neonatal resuscitation routinely. Standard Helping-Babies-Breathe training with video-debriefing improved knowledge and skills attainment post-training [adjusted mean difference: 5.34; 95% CI: 0.82–10.78] and retention [adjusted mean difference: 2.97; 95% CI: 1.52–4.41] over 6 months post-training compared to standard training after adjusting for confounding and clustering. Factors that reduced knowledge and skills retention among birth attendants were monthly resuscitation of one neonate or more and being in service for more than 5 years. Conclusion: Adding video-debriefing to standard Helping-Babies-Breathe training had an effect on birth attendants’ competence attainment and retention over 6 months in Uganda. However, more research is needed to justify the proposed intervention in this context. publishedVersion

IntroductionDeaths during the perinatal period remain a big challenge in Africa, with 38 deaths per 1000 pregnancies in Uganda. The consequences of these deaths can be detrimental to the women; some ending up with postpartum depression. We examined the association between perinatal death and postpartum depression among women in Lira district, Northern Uganda.MethodsWe conducted a community-based cross-sectional study of 1,789 women. Trained research assistants screened women for postpartum depressive symptoms on day 50 postpartum using the Edinburgh postpartum depression scale (EPDS). Socio-demographic, economic, birth and survival status of the neonate were collected during pregnancy and within one week postpartum. We used generalized estimating equation for the Poisson family with a log link using Stata to estimate the prevalence ratio of the association between postpartum depressive symptoms (EPDS scores ≥14) and perinatal death. Mothers who lost their babies between 7-49 days postpartum were excluded.ResultsOf the 1,789 participants symptomatically screened for postpartum depression, 377 (21.1%) [95% confidence interval (95%CI): 17.2%, 23.0%] had probable depressive symptoms. The prevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms among the 77 women who had experienced perinatal death (37 stillbirths and 40 early neonatal deaths (≤7 days of life)) was 62.3% [95% CI: 50.8%, 72.6%] compared to 19.2% [95% CI: 17.4%, 21.2%], among 1,712 with live infants at day 50 postpartum. Women who had experienced a perinatal death were three times as likely to have postpartum depressive symptoms as those who had a live birth [adjusted prevalence ratio 3.45 (95% CI: 2.67, 4.48)].ConclusionsThe prevalence of postpartum depressive symptoms, assessed by EPDS, was high among women who had had a perinatal death in Northern Uganda. Women experiencing a perinatal death need to be screened for postpartum depressive symptoms in order to intervene and reduce associated morbidity.

Introduction: Obstructed labour (OL) is an important clinical and public health problem because of the associated maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. Risk factors for OL and its associated obstetric squeal are usually context specific. No epidemiological study has documented the risk factors for OL in Eastern Uganda. This study was conducted to identify the risk factors for OL in Mbale Hospital. Objective: To identify the risk factors for OL in Mbale Regional Referral and Teaching Hospital, Eastern Uganda. Methods: We conducted a case control study with 270 cases of women with OL and 270 controls of women without OL. We consecutively enrolled eligible cases between July 2018 and February 2019. For each case, we randomly selected one eligible control admitted in the same 24-hour period. Data was collected using face-to-face interviews and a review of patient notes. Logistic regression was used to identify the risk factors for OL. Results: The risk factors for OL were, being a referral from a lower health facility (AOR 6.80, 95% CI: 4.20–11.00), prime parity (AOR 2.15 95% CI: 1.26–3.66) and use of herbal medicines in active labour (AOR 2.72 95% CI: 1.49–4.96). Married participants (AOR 0.59 95% CI: 0.35–0.97) with a delivery plan (AOR 0.56 95% CI: 0.35–0.90) and educated partners (AOR 0.57 95% CI: 0.33–0.98) were less likely to have OL. In the adjusted analysis, there was no association between four or more ANC visits and OL, adjusted odds ratio [(AOR) 0.96 95% CI: 0.57–1.63)]. Conclusions: Prime parity, use of herbal medicines in labour and being a referral from a lower health facility were identified as risk factors. Being married with a delivery plan and an educated partner were protective of OL. Increased frequency of ANC attendance was not protective against obstructed labour. publishedVersion

Under-diagnosis of asthma in ‘under-fives’ may be alleviated by improved inquiry into disease history. We assessed a questionnaire-based screening tool for asthma among 614 ‘under-fives’ with severe respiratory illness in Uganda. The questionnaire responses were compared to post hoc consensus diagnoses by three pediatricians who were guided by study definitions that were based on medical history, physical examination findings, laboratory and radiological tests, and response to bronchodilators. Children with asthma or bronchiolitis were categorized as “asthma syndrome”. Using this approach, 253 (41.2%) had asthma syndrome. History of and present breathing difficulties and present cough and wheezing was the best performing combination of four questionnaire items [sensitivity 80.8% (95% CI 77.6–84.0); specificity 84.7% (95% CI 81.8–87.6)]. The screening tool for asthma syndrome in ‘under-fives’ may provide a simple, cheap and quick method of identifying children with possible asthma. The validity and reliability of this tool in primary care settings should be tested.

Respiratory cryptosporidiosis is thought to be a rare, end-stage complication of HIV. Few studies have systematically examined the frequency of such infection in adults. Sputum specimens submitted for tuberculosis (TB) testing at Mulago Hospital, Uganda, were anonymously retested for Cryptosporidium using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Visual confirmation using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy was performed for a subset of PCR-positive samples. Of 824 sputum samples tested, 24 (2.9%) were Cryptosporidium positive. Prevalence in sputum ranged between 0% and 10% in each month of the study and exceeded TB prevalence in some months. In this referral population, respiratory Cryptosporidium prevalence was lower in people with HIV (1.3% versus 4.4% without HIV, P = 0.028) and higher in those with TB (6.8% versus 2.6% without TB, P = 0.086). The weak association between respiratory Cryptosporidium infection and TB persisted after controlling for HIV (odds ratio = 3.2, 95% confidence interval: 0.9, 11.8; P = 0.080). This is the first study to document adult respiratory tract cryptosporidiosis in a referral population with presumed TB. These findings 1) confirm that Cryptosporidium respiratory infection occurs in HIV-negative and -positive adults; 2) suggest there is potential for Cryptosporidium to be disseminated or transmitted by coughing or expectoration; and 3) identify possible synergy between Cryptosporidium and TB in the respiratory tract.

In Uganda, &gt, 50% of sick children receive treatment from primary level-private health facilities (HF). We assessed the appropriateness of care for common infections in under-five-year-old children and explored perspectives of healthcare workers (HCW) and policymakers on the quality of healthcare at low-level private health facilities (LLPHF) in western Uganda. This was a mixed-methods parallel convergent study. Employing multistage consecutive sampling, we selected 110 HF and observed HCW conduct 777 consultations of children with pneumonia, malaria, diarrhea or neonatal infections. We purposively selected 30 HCW and 8 policymakers for in-depth interviews. Care was considered appropriate if assessment, diagnosis, and treatment were correct. We used univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses for quantitative data and deductive thematic analysis for qualitative data. The proportion of appropriate care was 11% for pneumonia, 14% for malaria, 8% for diarrhea, and 0% for neonatal infections. Children with danger signs were more likely to receive appropriate care. Children with diarrhea or ability to feed orally were likely to receive inappropriate care. Qualitative data confirmed care given as often inappropriate, due to failure to follow guidelines. Overall, sick children with common infections were inappropriately managed at LLPHF. Technical support and provision of clinical guidelines should be increased to LLPHF.

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Globally, suboptimal breastfeeding contributes to more than 800,000 child deaths annually. In South Sudan, few women breastfeed early. We assessed the effect of a Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative training on early initiation of breastfeeding at Juba Teaching Hospital in South Sudan. We carried out the training for health workers after a baseline survey. We recruited 806 mothers both before and four to six months after training. We used a modified Poisson model to assess the effect of training. The prevalence of early initiation of breastfeeding increased from 48% (388/806) before to 91% (732/806) after training. Similarly, early initiation of breastfeeding increased from 3% (3/97) before to 60% (12/20) after training among women who delivered by caesarean section. About 8% (67/806) of mothers discarded colostrum before compared to 3% (24/806) after training. Further, 17% (134/806) of mothers used pre-lacteal feeds before compared to only 2% (15/806) after training. Regardless of the mode of birth, the intervention was effective in increasing early initiation of breastfeeding [adjusted prevalence ratio (APR) 1.69, 95% confidence interval CI (1.57-1.82)]. These findings suggest an urgent need to roll out the training to other hospitals in South Sudan. This will result in improved breastfeeding practices, maternal, and infant health.

Information on major depressive disorder (MDD) in primary care settings in sub-Saharan Africa is limited, yet this is required to improve service development. We explored prevalence and factors associated with MDD among adolescents attending a primary care facility in urban Uganda. At Naguru Teenage Information and Health Centre, 281 adolescents were assessed for MDD using the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview for Children and Adolescents (MINI-Kid). Prevalence and risk factors were determined using frequencies and regressions, respectively. The prevalence of adolescent MDD was 18.2 %. Vulnerability factors were orphanhood, childhood trauma (particularly emotional abuse and physical neglect) while social support was protective. Considerable burden of clinically significant depression exists in primary care settings in Uganda; this may well contribute to a poor quality of life.

Nil.

BACKGROUND The Uganda Sickle Surveillance Study provided evidence for a large sickle burden among HIV-exposed infants in Uganda. To date, however, no large scale screening program has been developed for Central or East Africa. METHODS A 3-year targeted sickle cell screening project in Uganda was designed by the Ministry of Health to (1) determine sickle cell trait and disease prevalence within high-burden districts, (2) document the prevalence among HIV-exposed and nonexposed children, (3) confirm previously suggested HIV comorbidity, and (4) estimate the co-inheritance of known genetic modifiers of sickle cell disease. RESULTS A total of 163 334 dried blood spot samples collected between April 2015 and March 2018 were analyzed, including 112 352 samples within the HIV Early Infant Diagnosis program. A high burden with >1% sickle cell disease was found within targeted East Central and Mid-Northern districts, in both HIV-exposed and nonexposed children. Based on crude birth-rate data, 236 905 sickle cell trait births and 16 695 sickle cell disease births will occur annually in Uganda. Compared to sickle cell disease without HIV, the odds ratio of having sickle cell disease plus HIV was 0.50 (95% confidence interval = 0.40-0.64, P

Knowledge of key decision makers and actors in newborn care is necessary to ensure that health interventions are targeted at the right people. This was a cross-sectional study carried out in Lira district, Northern Uganda. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with mothers being the key decision maker regarding where to give birth from and when to initiate breastfeeding. Fathers were the key decision makers on the place of birth (54.3%, n = 505) and on whether to seek care for a sick newborn child (47.7%, n = 92). Grandmothers most commonly bathed the baby immediately after birth (55.5%, n = 516), whereas mothers and health workers were common decision makers regarding breastfeeding initiation. Predictors for a mother being the key decision maker on the place of birth included: Mother having a secondary education (AOR 1.9: 95% C.I (1.0&ndash, 3.6)) and mother being formally employed (AOR 2.0: 95% (1.5&ndash, 2.9)). Mothers, fathers, grandmothers, health-workers, and traditional birth attendants were the most influential in the selected newborn care practices. Programs that aim to promote newborn care need to involve husbands, grandmothers, and health workers in addition to mothers.

IntroductionTo improve maternal and fetal outcomes among patients with obstructed labour (OL) in low-resource settings, the associated electrolyte and metabolic derangements must be adequately corrected. Oral fluid intake during labour and preoperative intravenous fluid replacement following OL corrects the associated dehydration and electrolyte changes, but it does not completely reverse the metabolic acidosis, that is, a cause of intrapartum birth asphyxia and a risk factor for primary postpartum haemorrhage due to uterine atony. Sodium bicarbonate is a safe, effective, cheap and readily available acid buffer, that is widely used by sportspeople to improve performance. It also appears to improve fetal and maternal outcomes in abnormally progressing labour. However, its effects on maternal and fetal outcomes among patients with OL is unknown. We aim at establishing the effect of a single-dose preoperative infusion of sodium bicarbonate on maternal and fetal lactate levels and clinical outcomes among patients with OL.Methods and analysisThis will be a double blind, randomised controlled clinical phase IIb trial. We will randomise 478 patients with OL to receive either 50 mL of placebo with standard preoperative infusion of normal saline (1.5 L) or 4.2 g of sodium bicarbonate solution (50 mL of 50 mmol/L) with the preoperative infusion of normal saline (1.5 L). The primary outcome will be mean lactate levels in maternal capillary blood at 1 hour after study drug administration and in the arterial cord blood at birth. We will use the intention-to-treat analysis approach. Secondary outcomes will include safety, maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality up to 14 days postpartum.Ethics and disseminationMakerere University School of Medicine Research and Ethics Committee and Uganda National Council for Science and Technology have approved the protocol. Each participant will give informed consent at enrollment.Trial registration numberPACTR201805003364421

Background Despite the fact that Uganda has been a signatory to the global strategy for Infant and Young Children Feeding practices (IYCF) for nearly a decade, the prevalence of stunting among children under five years of age remains tragically high at 17% in Eastern Uganda and twofold higher countrywide. Only 6% of all children aged 6–23 months feed adequately. This study aimed to establish the covariates of complementary feeding (CF) and its effect on attained height among primary school-aged children in Mbale district (Eastern Uganda). Methods This was a community-based prospective cohort study using data from the PROMISE EBF trial. The main exposure variable was adequate complementary feeding (CF) measured in a parent questionnaire at 18–24 months of age. We defined adequate CF as having received animal food, cereals and fruit, juice and/or vegetables during the 24 hours preceding the interview. An adapted minimum acceptable diet was defined as having been given milk or milk products at least twice a day, an adapted meal frequency of two and solid or semi-solid food from at least four food groups on a 24-hour dietary recall based on modified IYCF criteria. The main outcome variable was attained height [(height-for-age Z score (HAZ)] measured between five and eight years of age using the WHO growth standards. Effects of CF on HAZ were estimated using linear regression analyses with cluster-robust standard errors. Results A total of 506 children were studied. The majority (85%) were from rural areas and the average age at the end of the study was 6.9 (standard deviation: 0.63) years. Of these, 23.9% were adequately fed and 2.3% received the adapted minimum acceptable diet. Adequate CF was not associated with HAZ (adjusted β = -0.111; 95% CI: -0.363, 0.141; p = 0.374). Factors significantly associated with attained height were baseline HAZ (0.262; 0.152, 0.374; p

Background Breastfeeding is important for growth, development and survival of HIV exposed infants. Exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity, mortality and increases HIV free survival of infants. Evidence on risk factors for inappropriate breastfeeding in Northern Uganda is limited. Objective This study determined the risk factors for non-exclusivity of breastfeeding in the first 14 weeks of life. Methods This prospective cohort study was conducted among 466 mother-infant pairs between August 2018 and February 2020 in Lira district, Northern Uganda. HIV infected pregnant women were enrolled and followed up at delivery, 6- and 14- weeks postpartum. We used a structured questionnaire to obtain data on socio-demographic, reproductive-related, HIV-related characteristics and exclusive breastfeeding. Data were analysed using Stata version 14.0 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA.). We estimated adjusted risk ratios using modified Poisson regression models. Results The proportion of HIV exposed infants that were exclusively breastfed reduced with increasing age. Risk factors for non-exclusive breastfeeding included infants being born to HIV infected women who: were in the highest socioeconomic strata (adjusted risk ratio = 1.5, 95%CI: 1.01– 2.1), whose delivery was supervised by a non-health worker (adjusted risk ratio = 1.6, 95%CI: 1.01– 2.7) and who had not adhered to their ART during pregnancy (adjusted risk ratio = 1.3, 95%CI: 1.01– 1.7). Conclusions HIV infected women: with highest socioeconomic status, whose delivery was not supervised by a health worker and who did not adhere to ART were less likely to practice exclusive breastfeeding. We recommend ART adherence and infant feeding counselling to be emphasised among HIV infected women who are at risk of having a home delivery, those with poor ART adherence and those of higher socioeconomic status. We also recommend integration of these services into other settings like homes, community and work places instead of limiting them to hospital settings. Abbreviations HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus; ART: Antiretroviral therapy; HEI: HIV exposed infant; PMTCT: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV; MTCT: Mother-to-child transmission of HIV; AFASS: Acceptable, Feasible, Affordable, Sustainable and Safe; LRRH: Lira regional referral hospital; CI: confidence interval; ARR: Adjusted risk ratio; SD: Standard deviation; PCA: Principal component analysis publishedVersion

The prevalence of sickle cell disease (SCD) in the Republic of Uganda is higher than in the United States, but there are no accurate countrywide data and no newborn screening program has been established. The Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) program is well established to analyze dried blood spots (DBSs) collected from HIV-exposed infants (ie, those born to HIV-positive mothers). HIV-positive infants are identified and placed into specialty care. At the request of the Uganda Ministry of Health, a partnership was developed between Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Makerere University, and the Uganda Central Public Health Laboratories (CHPL) to build local laboratory capacity for testing DBSs for sickle cell trait (SCT) and SCD. The Uganda Sickle Surveillance Study (US3) was designed to identify SCT or SCD in DBSs collected throughout the national EID program. After US3, screening commenced in high-burden districts with local capacity built to provide clinical care for affected infants.

Background: Cleansing the umbilical cord with chlorhexidine reduces neonatal morbidity and mortality, particularly in communities where newborn deaths and home births are common. As a result, the World Health Organization and national authorities are advocating the scale up of this intervention. In order for such a scale up to be effective, it has to be acceptable to the targeted population. With the overall aim to clarify conditions for scale-up, this study explored the acceptability of single dose chlorhexidine solution for umbilical cord care among health workers and infant care providers in the districts of Kampala and Mukono in Central Uganda. Methods: This was a qualitative study that involved mothers of neonates enrolled in a chlorhexidine trial, nurses implementing the trial, key community members and opinion leaders in childcare. We conducted 30 in depth interviews (IDIs) with mothers (18), health workers (8), traditional birth attendants (2), a father (1) and a grandmother (1) and 4 focus group discussions (FGDs), 3 with mothers and 1 with health workers. We used qualitative content analysis to analyze our findings and borrow upon Sekhon’s model when presenting our findings. Results: Cognitive and emotional responses to chlorhexidine use included ease of use, and a perception that chlorhexidine reduced smell and abdominal colic. We also found that wider social and cultural factors were important to chlorhexidine use. These included cultural value put on quick separation of the umbilical cord as well as the practice of bathing the baby in a herbal mixture called kyogero. We also found that older relatives were key decision makers in umbilical cord care for newborns, but were seldom present during health workers’ counseling of mothers about hygienic care of the cord. Conclusions: The application of chlorhexidine on the umbilical cord stump at birth was acceptable as an addition rather than a total replacement of traditional substances. The scale up of chlorhexidine should consider how to accommodate local beliefs and practices in a way that does not compromise the effect of the intervention; encouraging mothers to delay the bathing of babies in kyogero could be one way of doing this. publishedVersion

Background Gaps remain in understanding the role of caregiver responses on time to seek appropriate care. The objective of this study was to describe caregiver responses to illness and the impact of these responses on time to seek appropriate care among children with malaria. Methods A case–control study of 325 children with severe (cases) and 325 children with uncomplicated (controls) malaria was conducted in Jinja, Uganda. Caregivers’ responses to their children’s illnesses and time to seek appropriate care were documented. Responses included staying at home, seeking care at drug shops, and seeking care at public health facilities classified into two types: (1) health facilities where caregiver initially sought care before enrollment, and (2) health facilities where children were provided appropriate care and enrolled in the study. Weighted Cox regression was used to determine risk factors for delays in time to seek appropriate care within 24 h of illness onset. Results Children staying home on self-medication was the most common initial response to illness among caregivers of controls (57.5%) and cases (42.4%, p

Background The beneficial effects from exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) have been widely acknowledged. We assessed the effect of exclusive breastfeeding promotion by peer counsellors in Uganda and Burkina Faso, on cognitive abilities, social emotional development, school performance and linear growth among 5-8 years old children. Methods Children in the PROMISE EBF trial (2006-2008) were re-enrolled in the follow-up PROMISE Saving Brains (SB) study (2013-2015). Caretaker interviews captured sociodemographic characteristics and social emotional development using the parent version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Overall cognition and working memory were assessed using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, second edition (KABC2), cognitive flexibility was measured with the Child Category Test (CCT), and attention with the Test of Variables of Attention (T.O.V.A), while school performance was measured by a standardized test on arithmetic and reading. Country-pooled, age adjusted z-scores from each of the above outcomes were entered into a linear regression model controlling for confounders. Results The number of children re-enrolled in the intervention and control arms were: 274/396 (69.2%) and 256/369 (69.4%) in Uganda and 265/392 (67.6%) and 288/402 (71.6%) in Burkina Faso. Assessment of cognitive ability showed small and no significant differences, of which general cognition (z-scores, 95% CI) showed the largest mean difference: -0.17 (-0.40; 0.05). Social emotional symptoms were similar across arms. There were no differences in school performance or linear growth for age detected. Conclusion Peer promotion for exclusive breastfeeding in Burkina Faso and Uganda was not associated with differences at 5-8 years of age in a range of measures of child development: cognitive abilities, emotion-behaviour-social symptoms or linear growth. This study from sub Saharan Africa did not reconfirm findings elsewhere that have shown an association between exclusive breastfeeding and cognitive performance. This might be due to a number of methodological limitations inherent in the current study. For example since the majority of the children were breastfed, the benefits of the intervention could have been diluted. Other factors such as the mental and HIV status of the mothers (which were not assessed in the current study) could have affected our results. Hence regarding the effect of exclusive breastfeeding on measures of child neurocognitive development in sub Saharan Africa, the jury is still out. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01882335.

Background We aimed to study the effects of schooling on aspects of attention using the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA) among children in rural Burkina Faso. Methods We re-enrolled children of a previously community-based cluster randomized exclusive breastfeeding trial in rural Burkina Faso. A total of 534 children (280 boys and 254 girls) aged 6 to 8 years were assessed using the TOVA. We examined the effect size difference using Cohen’s d, ANOVA and conducted regression analyses. Results Forty nine percent of the children were in school. Children not in school performed poorly with a small effect size difference for ‘Response Time’, ‘Errors of omission’, and ‘Errors of commission’ compared to children in school. The effect size difference was moderate for ‘Response Time Variability’, and ‘D prime score’. Conclusion Schooling affects different aspects of attention in rural Burkina Faso. In settings where literacy and schooling rate is low, public sensitizations of the benefits of schooling need to be reinforced and advice on sending children to school need to be provided continuously. publishedVersion

We studied associations between delayed care seeking, demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic factors and likelihood of severe malaria in Ugandan children. The study was based at Jinja Hospital, Uganda. We enrolled 325 severe malaria cases and 325 uncomplicated malaria controls matched by age and residence. Patient details, an itinerary of events in response to illness, household information, and location of participants' residences were captured. Conditional logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for severe malaria and delayed care seeking. Delayed care seeking (≥ 24 hours after fever onset; odds ratio [OR] 5.50; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.70, 11.1), seeking care at a drug shop as the initial response to illness (OR 3.62; 95% CI 1.86, 7.03), and increasing distance from place of residence to the nearest health center (OR 1.45; 95% CI 1.17, 1.79) were independent risk factors for severe malaria. On subgroup analysis, delayed care seeking was a significant risk factor in children with severe malaria attributable to severe anemia (OR 15.6; 95% CI 3.02, 80.6), but not unconsciousness (OR 1.13; 95% CI 0.30, 4.28). Seeking care at a drug shop (OR 2.84; 95% CI 1.12, 7.21) and increasing distance to the nearest health center (OR 1.18; 95% CI 1.01, 1.37) were independent risk factors for delayed care seeking. Delayed care seeking and seeking care at a drug shop were risk factors for severe malaria. Seeking care at a drug shop was also a predictor of delayed care seeking. The role of drug shops in contributing to delayed care and risk of severe malaria requires further study.

Unmet needs persist in pediatric HIV programs : lessons from selected case studies in Uganda