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OBJECTIVES The goal of this study was to determine the incidence, prognostic performance, and generalizability of the Pediatric Organ Dysfunction Information Update Mandate (PODIUM) organ dysfunction criteria using electronic health record (EHR) data. Additionally, we sought to compare the performance of the PODIUM criteria with the organ dysfunction criteria proposed by the 2005 International Pediatric Sepsis Consensus Conference (IPSCC). METHODS Retrospective observational cohort study of critically ill children at 2 medical centers in the United States between 2010 and 2018. We assessed prevalence of organ dysfunction based on the PODIUM and IPSCC criteria for each 24-hour period from admission to 28 days. We studied the prognostic performance of the criteria to discriminate in-hospital mortality. RESULTS Overall, 22 427 PICU admissions met inclusion criteria, and in-hospital mortality was 2.3%. The cumulative incidence of each PODIUM organ dysfunction ranged from 15% to 30%, with an in-hospital mortality of 6% to 10% for most organ systems. The number of concurrent PODIUM organ dysfunctions demonstrated good-to-excellent discrimination for in-hospital mortality (area under the curve 0.87–0.93 for day 1 through 28) and compared favorably to the IPSCC criteria (area under the curve 0.84–0.92, P < .001 to P = .06). CONCLUSIONS We present the first evaluation of the PODIUM organ dysfunction criteria in 2 EHR databases. The use of the PODIUM organ dysfunction criteria appears promising for epidemiologic and clinical research studies using EHR data. More studies are needed to evaluate the PODIUM criteria that are not routinely collected in structured format in EHR databases.

Objectives To describe the practice analysis undertaken by a task force convened by the American Board of Pediatrics Pediatric Critical Care Medicine Sub-board to create a comprehensive document to guide learning and assessment within Pediatric Critical Care Medicine. Design An in-depth practice analysis with a mixed-methods design involving a descriptive review of practice, a modified Delphi process, and a survey. Setting Not applicable. Subjects Seventy-five Pediatric Critical Care Medicine program directors and 2,535 American Board of Pediatrics Pediatric Critical Care Medicine diplomates. Interventions A practice analysis document, which identifies the full breadth of knowledge and skill required for the practice of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, was developed by a task force made up of seven pediatric intensivists and a psychometrician. The document was circulated to all 75 Pediatric Critical Care Medicine fellowship program directors for review and comment and their feedback informed modifications to the draft document. Concurrently, data from creation of the practice analysis draft document were also used to update the Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, was developed by a task force made up of seven pediatric intensivists and a psychometrician. The document was circulated to all 75 Pediatrics Pediatric Critical Care Medicine fellowship program directors for review and comment and their feedback informed modifications to the draft document. Concurrently, data from creation of the practice analysis draft document were also used to update the Pediatric Critical Care Medicine content outline, which was sent to all 2,535 American Board of Pediatrics Pediatric Critical Care Medicine diplomates for review during an open-comment period between January 2019 and February 2019, and diplomate feedback was used to make updates to both the content outline and the practice analysis document. Measurements and main results After review and comment by 25 Pediatric Critical Care Medicine program directors (33.3%) and 619 board-certified diplomates (24.4%), a comprehensive practice analysis document was created through a two-stage process. The final practice analysis includes 10 performance domains which parallel previously published Entrustable Professional Activities in Pediatric Critical Care Medicine. These performance domains are made up of between three and eight specific tasks, with each task including the critical knowledge and skills that are necessary for successful completion. The final practice analysis document was also used by the American Board of Pediatrics Pediatric Critical Care Medicine Sub-board to update the Pediatric Critical Care Medicine content outline. Conclusions A systematic approach to practice analysis, with stakeholder engagement, is essential for an accurate definition of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine practice in its totality. This collaborative process resulted in a dynamic document useful in guiding curriculum development for training programs, maintenance of certification, and lifetime professional development to enable safe and efficient patient care.

It is rare for children to receive more than one course of support with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and in those who do undergo multiple episodes, the interval is usually days to weeks between events. Little data exists on re-cannulation years after an initial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation run, and late repeat cannulation can pose unique challenges. We report the case of a 10-year-old male patient with right jugular vein occlusion due to a previous course of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a neonate, who was successfully supported via central cannulation. This case demonstrates the importance of adequate imaging of target vasculature prior to attempting re-cannulation of a previously used vessel. Establishing a thoughtful strategy for late repeat cannulation is essential to achieve safe access in unusual and challenging situations.

Objective: To describe patient and hospital characteristics associated with in-hospital mortality, length of stay (LOS), and charges for children with severe sepsis or septic shock who often require specialized organ-supportive technology to enhance outcomes, availability of which might vary across hospitals. Design: Retrospective study among children hospitalized for severe sepsis or septic shock, using the 2012 Kids’ Inpatient Database. Multivariate regression methods identified factors associated with mortality, LOS, and charges. Measurements and Main Results: Of an estimated 11 972 hospitalizations for pediatric severe sepsis or septic shock, most hospitalizations (85%) were to urban teaching hospitals. Hospitalizations were more frequent among neonates and older adolescents than other age groups. Mortality was 17%, average LOS was 24 days, and average hospital charges were US$314 950. Higher mortality was associated with neonates, cumulative organ dysfunction, more comorbidities, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Longer hospitalization and higher charges were associated with neonates, more comorbidities, higher illness severity, invasive medical technology, and urban hospitals. Conclusions: Efforts to mitigate the substantial in-hospital mortality and resource use observed in pediatric severe sepsis or septic shock should be age-specific and focused on the influence of comorbidities and organ dysfunction on outcomes. Future research should elucidate reasons for higher resource use at urban hospitals.

Objective To summarize the epidemiology and outcomes of children with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome as part of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development multiple organ dysfunction syndrome workshop (March 26-27, 2015). Data sources Literature review, research data, and expert opinion. Study selection Not applicable. Data extraction Moderated by an experienced expert from the field, issues relevant to the epidemiology and outcomes of children with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome were presented, discussed, and debated with a focus on identifying knowledge gaps and research priorities. Data synthesis Summary of presentations and discussion supported and supplemented by the relevant literature. Conclusions A full understanding the epidemiology and outcome of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in children is limited by inconsistent definitions and populations studied. Nonetheless, pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome is common among PICU patients, occurring in up to 57% depending on the population studied; sepsis remains its leading cause. Pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome leads to considerable short-term morbidity and mortality. Long-term outcomes of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in children have not been well studied; however, studies of adults and children with other critical illnesses suggest that the risk of long-term adverse sequelae is high. Characterization of the long-term outcomes of pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome is crucial to identify opportunities for improved treatment and recovery strategies that will improve the quality of life of critically ill children and their families. The workshop identified important knowledge gaps and research priorities intended to promote the development of standard definitions and the identification of modifiable factors related to its occurrence and outcome.

IntroductionSudden cardiac death (SCD) is responsible for 5%-10% of all deaths among children 5-19 years-of-age. The incidence of SCD in youth in Michigan (USA) and nationwide is higher in racial/ethnic minorities and in certain geographic areas. School cardiac emergency response plans (CERPs) increase survival after cardiac arrest. However, school cardiac emergency preparedness remains variable. Studying population-level factors associated with school cardiac emergency preparedness and incidence of SCD in the young may improve understanding of disparities in the incidence of SCD.Hypothesis/ProblemThe objective of this pilot study was to determine the association of elements of high school cardiac emergency preparedness, including Automated External Defibrillator (AED) distribution and the presence of CERPs with county sociodemographic characteristics and county incidence of SCD in the young.MethodsSurveys were sent to representatives from all public high schools in 30 randomly selected Michigan counties. Counties with greater than 50% response rate were included (n=19). Association of county-level sociodemographic characteristics with incidence of SCD in the young and existence of CERPs were evaluated using Spearman correlation coefficient.ResultsFactors related to the presence of AEDs were similar across counties. Schools in counties of lower socioeconomic status (SES; lower-median income, lower per capita income, and higher population below poverty level) were less likely to have a CERP than those with higher SES (all Pr=-0.71; P=.001). Overall incidence of SCD in youth was higher in lower SES counties (r=-0.62 in median income and r=0.51 in population below poverty level; both PConclusionCounty SES is associated with the presence of CERPs in schools, suggesting a link between school cardiac emergency preparedness and county financial resources. Additionally, counties of lower SES demonstrated higher incidence of SCD in the young. Statewide and national studies are required to further explore the factors relating to geographic and socioeconomic differences in cardiac emergency preparedness and the incidence of SCD in the young.WhiteMJ, LoccohEC, GobleMM, YuS, OdetolaFO, RussellMW. High school cardiac emergency response plans and sudden cardiac death in the young. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2017;32(3):269–272.

Purpose To investigate the decision making underlying transfer of children with respiratory failure from level II to level I pediatric intensive care unit care. Methods Interviews with 19 eligible level II pediatric intensive care unit physicians about a hypothetical scenario of a 2-year-old girl in respiratory failure: Baseline : Ventilator settings: rate 25, peak inspiratory pressure 28, positive end-expiratory pressure 8, fraction of inspired oxygen (F io 2 ) 100% Escalation Point (EP) 1 : after 8 hours. Higher ventilator settings; oxygenation index (OI) 32 EP 2 : 3 hours later. OI 40 Results At baseline, indices critical to management were as follows: OI (53%), partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (Pa o 2 )/F io 2 (32%), and inflation pressure (16%). Poor clinical response was signified by high OI, inflation pressure, and F io 2 , and low Pa o 2 /F io 2 . At EP 1, 18 of 19 respondents would initiate high-frequency oscillatory ventilation, and 1 would transfer. At EP 2, 15 of 18 respondents would maintain high-frequency oscillatory ventilation, 9 of them calling to discuss transfer. All respondents would transfer if escalated therapies failed to reverse the patient's clinical deterioration. Conclusion Interhospital transfer of children in respiratory failure is triggered by poor response to escalation of locally available care modalities. This finding provides new insight into decision making underlying interhospital transfer of children with respiratory failure.

Background Sepsis is a major cause of child mortality and morbidity. To enhance outcomes, children with severe sepsis or septic shock often require escalated care for organ support, sometimes necessitating interhospital transfer. The association between transfer admission for the care of pediatric severe sepsis or septic shock and in-hospital patient survival and resource use is poorly understood. Methods Retrospective study of children 0–20 years old hospitalized for severe sepsis or septic shock, using the 2012 Kids’ Inpatient Database. After descriptive and bivariate analysis, multivariate regression methods assessed the independent relationship between transfer status and outcomes of in-hospital mortality, duration of hospitalization, and hospital charges, after adjustment for potential confounders including illness severity. Results Of an estimated 11,922 hospitalizations (with transfer information) for pediatric severe sepsis and septic shock nationally in 2012, 25% were transferred, most often to urban teaching hospitals. Compared to non-transferred children, transferred children were younger, and had a higher frequency of extreme illness severity (84% vs. 75%, p

Background:Sepsis induces inflammation in response to infection and is a major cause of mortality and hospitalization in children. Obesity induces chronic inflammation leading to many clinical manifestations. Our understanding of the impact of obesity on diseases, such as infection and sepsis, is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the association of obesity with organ dysfunction, mortality, duration, and charges during among US children hospitalized with infection.Methods:Retrospective study of hospitalizations in children with infection aged 0 to 20 years, using the 2009 Kids’ Inpatient Database.Results:Of 3.4 million hospitalizations, 357 701 were for infection, 5685 of which were reported as obese children. Obese patients had higher rates of organ dysfunction (7.35% vs 5.5%, P < .01), longer hospital stays (4.1 vs 3.5 days, P < .001), and accrued higher charges (US$29 019 vs US$21 200, P < .001). In multivariable analysis, mortality did not differ by obesity status (odds ratio: 0.56, 95% confidence interval: 0.23-1.34), however severity of illness modified the association between obesity status and the other outcomes.Conclusions:While there was no difference in in-hospital mortality by obesity diagnosis, variation in organ dysfunction, hospital stay, and hospital charges according to obesity status was mediated by illness severity. Findings from this study have significant implications for targeted approaches to mitigate the burden of obesity on infection and sepsis.

Objective:To determine the factors that influence the decision to transfer children in septic shock from level II to level I pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) care.Design:Interviews with level II PICU physicians in Michigan and Northwest Ohio. A hypothetical scenario of a 14-year-old boy in septic shock was presented.Baseline:40 mL/kg fluid resuscitation, central venous and peripheral arterial access, and high-dose vasopressor infusions were provided.Escalation Point:After 2 hours. When the patient is in catecholamine-resistant shock and oliguric, invasive mechanical ventilation is initiated.Measurements and Main Results:All 19 eligible physicians participated. At baseline, respondents would assess measures of perfusion and hemodynamics: blood pressure (BP; 15 [79%]), lactate (12 [63%]), and central venous oxygen saturation (ScvO2; 10 [53%]). Poor clinical response was signified by low BP (11 [58%]), elevated lactate (9 [47%]), low urine output (8 [42%]), and low ScvO2(6 [32%]). At the escalation point, 13 of 18 respondents felt there was Conclusions:Level II to level I PICU transfer of children with septic shock is triggered by perceived nonresponse to locally available therapies. Few referring physicians do not transfer children in refractory septic shock. This study provides new insight into decision-making that influences the interhospital transfer of children with septic shock.

Objective: To evaluate the effect of overweight and obesity on outcomes and resource use among patients with sepsis in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Design: Retrospective analysis of clinical characteristics, resource use, and mortality among children 0 to 20 years of age admitted to the C.S. MottChildren’s Hospital PICU (University of Michigan) between January 2009 and December 2015, with a diagnostic code for sepsis at admission (based on International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision- Clinical Modification codes) and with weight and height measurements at PICU admission. Measurements and Main Results: A total of 454 participants met the inclusion criteria. Seventy-six were categorized as underweight (body mass index [BMI] percentile 5th and 85th percentile as overweight/obese. After descriptive and bivariate analyses, multivariate regression methods were used to assess the independent effect of obesity status on mortality and the use of PICU technology after adjustment for patient age and illness severity at admission. Of the 378 patients studied, 41.3% were overweight/obese. There was no difference in microbiologic etiology of sepsis ( P = .36), median PICU length of stay in days (5.4 vs 5.6; P = .61), or PICU mortality (6.4% vs 7.2%; P = .76) by weight status. The use of specialized PICU technology including extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (odds ratio [OR]: 2.77, 95% confidence interval [CI]:1.13-6.79) and continuous renal replacement therapy (OR: 4.58, 95% CI: 1.16-18.0) was higher among overweight/obese patients, compared with normal weight patients. Conclusions: Although PICU mortality and length of stay were similar for obese–overweight patients and normal weight critically ill children with sepsis, there was significantly higher use of specialized organ-supportive technology among obese patients, likely indicating higher occurrence of multiple organ dysfunction.

ObjectiveThe goal of this study was to test the hypothesis that the prehospital time between injury and arrival at a trauma center for critically injured children is associated with patient injury severity and mode of transport.MethodsSecondary analysis of prospectively collected data on children 0-17 years of age admitted with traumatic injuries to a designated Level I pediatric trauma center from January 1, 2006 through September 30, 2007 was conducted. Multivariate regression methods were used to assess for factors independently associated with prehospital time.ResultsOf 1,175 admissions during the study period, only 355 (30%) had a prehospital time within 60 minutes of injury. Prehospital time within 60 minutes of injury was associated with higher frequency of coma, higher mean injury severity scores (ISS), and greater frequency of admission to the intensive care unit when compared with prehospital time beyond 60 minutes of injury. Children who arrived at the trauma center within 60 minutes versus beyond 60 minutes were 13-fold (odds ratio [OR]: 12.9; 95% Confidence Interval [CI], 7.6-22.0) more likely to be transported via air ambulance than a private vehicle, and had 4.8-fold greater odds (95% CI, 2.2-10.3) of transport via ground ambulance than private vehicle. For each kilometer of distance between the injury zip code and the trauma center, the odds of arrival within 60 minutes versus beyond 60 minutes decreased by 15% (OR: 0.85; 95% CI, 0.79-0.91).ConclusionField triage and decision making appeared to correlate with severity of patient injury with expeditious transport of the most severely injured children to definitive trauma care. This finding serves as important groundwork that might enable further study into factors that influence triage and overall prehospital care for critically injured children.OdetolaFO, MannNC, HansenKW, BrattonSL. Factors associated with time to arrival at a regional pediatric trauma center. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2016;31(1):4–9.

Purpose Of all sources of admission to level I pediatric intensive care units (PICUs), interhospital transfer admissions from level II PICUs carry the highest mortality and resource use burden. We sought to investigate factors associated with transfer of children with respiratory failure from level II to level I PICUs. Methods A case-control study was conducted among children with respiratory failure admitted to 6 level II PICUs between January 1, 1997, and December 31, 2007, with frequency matching of 466 nontransferred children (controls) to 187 transferred children (cases). Results Among 653 children, transferred children were younger and had more comorbidities. After multivariable analysis, transferred children were more likely to have comorbidities (odds ratio [OR], 2.02; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.36-2.98) and receive escalated care including high-frequency ventilation (OR, 2.57; 95% CI, 1.04-6.37) and surfactant therapy (OR, 5.33; 95% CI, 1.35-21.0). Conclusions The study identified patient-level and process-of-care factors associated with transfer from level II to level I PICUs. These findings highlight the influence of escalated care on transfer decision making for critically ill children in respiratory failure.

Recent pediatric studies suggest a survival benefit exists for higher-volume extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) centers.To determine if higher annual ECMO patient volume is associated with lower case-mix-adjusted hospital mortality rate.We retrospectively analyzed an international registry of ECMO support from 1989 to 2013. Patients were separated into three age groups: neonatal (0-28 d), pediatric (29 d to18 yr), and adult (≥18 yr). The measure of hospital ECMO volume was age group-specific and adjusted for patient-level case-mix and hospital-level variance using multivariable hierarchical logistic regression modeling. The primary outcome was death before hospital discharge. A subgroup analysis was conducted for 2008-2013.From 1989 to 2013, a total of 290 centers provided ECMO support to 56,222 patients (30,909 neonates, 14,725 children, and 10,588 adults). Annual ECMO mortality rates varied widely across ECMO centers: the interquartile range was 18-50% for neonates, 25-66% for pediatrics, and 33-92% for adults. For 1989-2013, higher age group-specific ECMO volume was associated with lower odds of ECMO mortality for neonates and adults but not for pediatric cases. In 2008-2013, the volume-outcome association remained statistically significant only among adults. Patients receiving ECMO at hospitals with more than 30 adult annual ECMO cases had significantly lower odds of mortality (adjusted odds ratio, 0.61; 95% confidence interval, 0.46-0.80) compared with adults receiving ECMO at hospitals with less than six annual cases.In this international, case-mix-adjusted analysis, higher annual hospital ECMO volume was associated with lower mortality in 1989-2013 for neonates and adults; the association among adults persisted in 2008-2013.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Sepsis syndrome, comprising sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock, is a leading cause of child mortality and morbidity, for which the delivery of time-sensitive care leads to improved survival. We aimed to describe the development and testing of quality measures for in-hospital care of pediatric sepsis syndrome. METHODS: Seven measures of quality of care for children hospitalized with sepsis syndrome were developed by using an iterative process including literature review, development of concepts and candidate measures, and selection of measures for feasibility and importance by 2 panels of experts. The measures were tested for reliability and validity among children 0 to 18 years of age hospitalized with sepsis syndrome from January 1, 2012, to June 30, 2013. RESULTS: Of 27 hospitals, 59% had no protocol for the identification and treatment of pediatric sepsis syndrome. Blood culture was performed in only 70% of patients with pediatric sepsis syndrome. Antibiotics were administered within 1 hour of diagnosis in 70% of patients with pediatric severe sepsis or septic shock, and timely fluid resuscitation was performed in 50% of patients with severe sepsis or septic shock. Documentation of heart rate during fluid resuscitation of children with severe sepsis or septic shock was observed in 18% of cases. Two measures could not be rigorously tested for validity and reliability given the rarity of septic shock and were deemed infeasible. CONCLUSIONS: This multisite study to develop and validate measures of the quality of hospital care of children with sepsis syndrome highlights the existence of important gaps in delivery of care.

Trauma is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity among children in the USA. To examine the variation in the epidemiology and patterns of visits to emergency departments (EDs), and test the hypothesis that children evaluated at trauma centre EDs will have higher injury severity and a higher likelihood of hospitalisation versus those evaluated at non-trauma centre EDs, we analysed a national database of all injured children aged 0-20 years evaluated at US EDs in 2009. Childhood injuries are a frequent cause of visits to US EDs, with a national point prevalence of 620 cases per 10,000 children aged 0-20 years. Epidemiology of childhood injuries in the USA is significant for male gender preponderance, significant seasonal and geographical variation, and disproportionately more frequent injury to the extremities than other sites of the body. National hospital resource use was significant, with greater burden borne by trauma centres which disproportionately provided care to the most severely injured children.

Objective: Parents of seriously ill children require attention to their spiritual needs, especially during end-of-life care. The objective of this study was to characterize parental attitudes regarding physician inquiry into their belief system. Materials and Main Results: A total of 162 surveys from parents of children hospitalized for >48 hours in pediatric intensive care unit in a tertiary academic medical center were analyzed. Forty-nine percent of all respondents and 62% of those who identified themselves as moderate to very spiritual or religious stated that their beliefs influenced the decisions they made about their child’s medical care. Although 34% of all respondents would like their physician to ask about their spiritual or religious beliefs, 48% would desire such enquiry if their child was seriously ill. Those who identified themselves as moderate to very spiritual or religious were most likely to welcome the discussion ( P < .001). Two-thirds of the respondents would feel comforted to know that their child’s physician prayed for their child. One-third of all respondents would feel very comfortable discussing their beliefs with a physician, whereas 62% would feel very comfortable having such discussions with a chaplain. Conclusion: The study findings suggest parental ambivalence when it comes to discussing their spiritual or religious beliefs with their child’s physicians. Given that improved understanding of parental spiritual and religious beliefs may be important in the decision-making process, incorporation of the expertise of professional spiritual care providers may provide the optimal context for enhanced parent–physician collaboration in the care of the critically ill child.

Objectives To assess the current attitudes of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) program directors regarding eligibility for ECMO among children with cardiopulmonary failure. Study design Electronic cross-sectional survey of ECMO program directors at ECMO centers worldwide within the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization directory (October 2015-December 2015). Results Of 733 eligible respondents, 226 (31%) completed the survey, 65% of whom routinely cared for pediatric patients. There was wide variability in whether respondents would offer ECMO to any of the 5 scenario patients, ranging from 31% who would offer ECMO to a child with trisomy 18 to 76% who would offer ECMO to a child with prolonged cardiac arrest and indeterminate neurologic status. Even physicians practicing the same specialty sometimes held widely divergent opinions, with 50% of pediatric intensivists stating they would offer ECMO to a child with severe developmental delay and 50% stating they would not. Factors such as quality of life and neurologic status influenced decision making and were used to support decisions for and against offering ECMO. Conclusions ECMO program directors vary widely in whether they would offer ECMO to various children with cardiopulmonary failure. This heterogeneity in physician decision making underscores the need for more evidence that could eventually inform interinstitutional guidelines regarding patient selection for ECMO.

Objective: Rapid response teams (RRTs) have been proposed as patient safety initiatives for hospitalized children. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, characteristics, and opinions of RRTs in hospitals with PICUs in the United States. Methods: This study was conducted as a cross-sectional survey of PICU physicians in adult and children’s hospitals that care for children. One survey was sent to the PICU medical director in each hospital. The primary outcome was the presence of an RRT. Other outcomes included RRT characteristics and beliefs regarding their impact on patient safety. Results: The survey response rate was 64% (134 of 210). Of the responding institutions, 79% (103) had an RRT; most of these teams were implemented in the last 5 years. Family activation was present in 69%, and automatic triggers existed in 34% of cases. RRTs included a median of 3 members and were composed of physicians in 77%, nurses in 100%, and respiratory therapists in 89% of institutions. Respondents with RRTs were more likely to agree that RRTs improve patient safety than respondents without RRTs (76% vs 52%) and more likely to disagree that they are not worth the money invested (82% vs 63%). Conclusions: Although the evidence and opinions on the benefit of RRTs are mixed, the majority of US hospitals with PICUs have implemented RRTs. These systems demonstrate variability in activation mechanisms and team composition. Hospitals may be empirically adopting these initiatives without knowledge of the specific characteristics that are optimal for patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVES To describe the beliefs and attitudes of U.S. neurosurgeons regarding the use of intracranial pressure monitors among comatose children with meningitis. DESIGN AND SETTING A questionnaire was administered by mail between March and July 2009, to a random sample of 500 adult neurosurgeons and to all 228 pediatric neurosurgeons in the Congress of Neurologic Surgeons. INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS The response rate was 60%. Abnormal computed tomography scans, either with brain swelling or hydrocephalus, and older child age were likely to prompt neurosurgeons to consider monitoring intracranial pressure, whereas etiology of meningitis did not impact the decision to monitor intracranial pressure. Fifty-two percent of neurosurgeons believed computed tomography scans were inaccurate in detecting elevated intracranial pressure in comatose children with meningitis, 22% believed otherwise, and 26% were uncertain. Only 25% of neurosurgeons felt there was sufficient medical evidence to monitor intracranial pressure in comatose children with meningitis, with higher frequency among adult than pediatric (30% vs. 16%; p < .01) neurosurgeons. Eighty-one percent of neurosurgeons disagreed with the notion that comatose children with meningitis were too ill to benefit from placement of intracranial pressure monitors. Pediatric neurosurgeons reported a higher frequency than adult neurosurgeons of having placed more (more than five) intracranial pressure monitors in comatose children with meningitis (42% vs. 28%; p < .01). CONCLUSIONS Most neurosurgeons are willing to consider monitoring intracranial pressure among comatose children with meningitis in the presence of abnormal findings on computed tomography scan and with older patient age. These findings are instructive in view of the current uncertainty and equipoise in clinical practice regarding intracranial pressure monitoring in these critically ill children.

To describe the clinical course, resource use, and mortality of patients with leukemia admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit with sepsis and nonsepsis diagnoses over a 10-yr period.Retrospective analysis.Tertiary medical-surgical pediatric intensive care unit at C.S. Mott Children's Hospital, University of Michigan.All patients with leukemia admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit from January 1, 1998, to December 31, 2008.None; chart review.Clinical course was characterized by demographics, leukemia diagnosis, phase of therapy, leukocyte count on admission, presence of sepsis, steroid administration, intensity of care, and Pediatric Risk of Mortality score on admission to the pediatric intensive care unit. The primary outcome was survival to pediatric intensive care unit discharge. Among 68 single admissions to the pediatric intensive care unit with leukemia during the study period, 33 (48.5%) were admitted with sepsis. Admission to the pediatric intensive care unit for sepsis was associated with greater compromise of hemodynamic and renal function and use of stress dose steroids (p = .016), inotropic and/or vasopressor drugs (p = .01), and renal replacement therapy (p = .028) than nonsepsis admission. There was higher mortality among children with sepsis than other diagnoses (52% vs. 17%, p = .004). Also, mortality among children with sepsis was higher among those with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (60% vs. 44%) compared with acute myelogenous leukemia. Administration of stress dose steroids was associated with higher mortality (50% vs. 17%, p = .005) and neutropenia. Patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and sepsis showed the greatest mortality and resource use.Patients with acute leukemia and sepsis had a much higher mortality rate compared with previously described sepsis mortality rates for the general pediatric intensive care unit patient populations. Patients who received steroids had an increased mortality rate, but given the retrospective nature of this study, we maintain a position of equipoise with regard to this association. Variation in mortality and resource use by leukemia type suggests further research is needed to develop targeted intervention strategies to enhance patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVE. Our goal was to describe patient and hospital characteristics associated with in-hospital mortality, length of stay, and charges for critically ill children with severe sepsis.METHODS. Our study consisted of a retrospective study of children 0 to 19 years of age hospitalized with severe sepsis using the 2003 Kids' Inpatient Database. We generated national estimates of rates of hospitalization and then compared in-hospital mortality, length of stay, and total charges according to patient and hospital characteristics using multivariable regression methods. Severity of illness was measured by using all-patient refined diagnosis-related group severity of illness classification into minor, moderate, major, and extreme severity.RESULTS. There were an estimated 21448 hospitalizations for severe pediatric sepsis nationally in 2003. The in-hospital mortality rate was 4.2%. Comorbid illness was present in 34% of hospitalized children. Most (70%) of the extremely ill children were admitted to children's hospitals. Length of stay was longer among patients with higher illness severity and nonsurvivors compared with survivors (13.5 vs 8.5 days). Hospitalizations at urban or children's hospitals were also associated with longer length of stay than nonchildren's or rural hospitals, respectively. Higher charges were associated with higher illness severity, and nonsurvivors had 2.5-fold higher total charges than survivors. Also, higher charges were observed among hospitalizations in urban or children's hospitals. In multivariable regression analysis, multiple comorbid illnesses, multiple organ dysfunction, and greater severity of illness were associated with higher odds of mortality and longer length of stay. Higher hospital charges and longer length of stay were observed among transfer hospitalizations and among hospitalizations to children's hospitals and nonchildren's teaching hospitals compared with hospitals, which had neither children's nor teaching status.CONCLUSIONS. Mortality from severe pediatric sepsis is associated with patient illness severity, comorbid illness, and multiple organ dysfunction. Many characteristics are associated with resource consumption, including type of hospital, source of admission, and illness severity.

Introduction Trauma is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity among children in the U.S. There is paucity of data on the triage of children with spinal cord injury (SCI) to definitive trauma care, and it is unknown if clinical outcomes and resource utilization for children hospitalized with SCI vary according to the settings where trauma care is provided. The study was conducted to describe recent patterns of emergency department (ED) evaluation for paediatric SCI in the U.S., and to characterize outcomes and resource use for children hospitalized at non-trauma centres versus trauma centres. Materials and methods Secondary analysis of a national database on injured children 0–20 years evaluated at U.S. EDs and either hospitalized or released, in 2009–2012. In-hospital mortality, duration of stay, and overall charges, were compared according to trauma centre status of the treating hospital. Results Of an estimated 67 million annual paediatric visits to the ED for trauma evaluation nationally in 2009–2012, 2317 had SCI. Majority (87%) of children evaluated for SCI were under 6 years of age, and boys comprised 73% of the visits. Injuries were caused mainly by motor vehicle accidents, falls, non-transport-related accidents, and firearms. The South census region had the most ED visits and hospitalizations. Majority (92%) of the most severely injured was evaluated at trauma centres, and more visits to trauma centres (81% vs. 18%, p = 0.022) resulted in hospitalization. Among an estimated 1570 hospitalizations of children with SCI from the ED nationally, children at trauma centres were more likely to have major injuries (67% vs. 44%, p = 0.001), similar mortality, longer average hospital stay, and higher charges, compared with children hospitalized at non-trauma centres. Conclusion Significant demographic and geographical variation exists in national patterns of hospital care for paediatric SCI. Higher severity of patient injury was associated with concomitantly higher hospital resource use at trauma centres.

OBJECTIVE Pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) have grown in number and size over time in aggregate across the United States, but the factors promoting such changes have not been well characterized. This study was conducted to explore the establishment, expansion, and closure of PICUs. DESIGN A cross-sectional in-depth telephone interview survey of executive hospital administrators. SETTING Fourteen institutions representing four newly established PICUs, two PICU expansions, and eight PICU closures. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Officials' comments indicate that the establishment of PICUs is driven primarily by the need to care for patients requiring intensive cardiorespiratory monitoring and/or postoperative surgical care and to respond to the needs of outlying community hospitals. The main factors that drive PICU expansion are institutional growth in pediatric subspecialist medical and surgical support for critically ill patients and the need to match increases in demand and patient volume experienced by existing PICUs. With regard to PICU closures, competition from other institutions within the same market for patients and subspecialty care providers, lower-than-expected volumes of patients, and/or negative financial margins were cited as key factors. CONCLUSIONS This study provides new insight into decision-making that influences the availability of critical care services for children. The establishment, expansion, and closure of PICUs are driven predominantly by local demand for pediatric critical care services, whereas availability of subspecialists as well as competition between PICUs within the same market affect the long-term sustainability of such services.

Objectives To describe the relationship between the location of Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) facilities and county-level child death from trauma in the contiguous USA. Study design We conducted a cross-sectional ecologic study using county-level data on death due to trauma in children 0 to 14 years of age from 1996 to 1998. These data were linked to 1997 county-level data on availability of PICU facilities. Results In 1997, PICU facilities were present in 9% of USA counties. There were 18,337 childhood deaths from trauma in the study period. The presence of PICU facilities in a county was associated with lower mortality from trauma (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 0.72; 95% CI 0.67-0.78) compared to counties without PICU facilities. After controlling for residence in rural and low-income counties, and the presence of adult medicosurgical intensive care units, the presence of PICU facilities in a county remained associated with lower rates of death from trauma (IRR = 0.82; 95% CI 0.75-0.89). Conclusion The presence of PICU facilities is related to lower mortality rates due to traumatic injuries at the county level. This finding may reflect the concentration of pediatric subspecialty care in counties with PICUs. This association merits further study with individual-level observations.

Nosocomial bloodstream infections are associated with increased patient morbidity, mortality, and hospital costs. More than 90% of these infections are related to the use of intravascular catheter devices. This study was done to assess the risk and rates of catheter related-bloodstream infections (CR-BSI) associated with different intravascular technologies in a pediatric intensive care unit population.Retrospective cohort study.A 16-bed pediatric intensive care unit in a tertiary children's hospital.All admissions between July 1997 and December 1999 requiring placement of an intravascular access device for care were examined. Patients with CR-BSI were identified through ongoing surveillance using Centers for Disease Control/National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System definitions for bloodstream infection.None.Of the 2,728 admissions during the review period, 1,043 (38.3%) required placement of an intravascular access device. Bivariate analysis revealed that patients who required intravascular cannulae for extracorporeal life support had a 10-fold increased risk of developing a CR-BSI, and patients requiring vascular access for renal replacement therapy demonstrated a 4-fold increase in the risk of developing CR-BSI compared with the referent group. There was a significant increase in the CR-BSI rate associated with the use of more intravascular access devices per patient admission. Multivariate logistic regression identified the use of extracorporeal life support therapy and the total duration of use of intravascular access devices as significant independent predictors of CR-BSI when controlling for other predictors.The use of extracorporeal life support therapy, the presence of multiple intravascular access devices, and the total duration of intravascular access device use were associated with an increase in the rate and risk of developing CR-BSI in our pediatric intensive care unit population. Larger, prospective studies may help elucidate additional factors responsible for these observations.

Symptomatic cerebral edema from diabetic ketoacidosis occurs infrequently but carries a high rate of mortality and morbidity owing to complications from intracranial hypertension. Treatment options are limited but include hyperosmolar therapy with mannitol or hypertonic saline, tracheal intubation for airway protection, and hyperventilation via mechanical ventilation. We describe here the successful use of an intracranial pressure/cerebral perfusion pressure-targeted management strategy through ventriculostomy catheter placement with intracranial pressure monitoring and cerebrospinal fluid drainage, hyperosmolar therapy with hypertonic saline, and controlled hyperventilation to treat life-threatening complications of cerebral edema in a pediatric patient with severe diabetic ketoacidosis.

Previous studies of extracorporeal life support in pediatric patients have identified variables associated with survival. However, none of these studies focused on extracorporeal life support after failure of high frequency ventilation (HFV). In the present study, we determined variables associated with survival for pediatric respiratory failure patients who received HFV prior to extracorporeal life support, using data reported to the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry from 1992 to 1998. Patients with neonatal diagnoses, immune compromising conditions, or congenital cardiac defects were excluded. The 243 patients who met inclusion criteria had a 58% survival rate (95% CI 48-66%). The mean age was 22 +/- 39 months. Mean duration of mechanical ventilation prior to extracorporeal life support was 6.6 +/- 5.8 days. Venoarterial extracorporeal life support was used in 72% of the patients; venovenous in 28%. The survival rate for the subset of patients with an oxygenation index greater than 42 cm H2O/torr on HFV (n = 122) was not significantly different from the overall sample. We determined that lower mean airway pressure, lower pressure amplitude, decreased oxygenation index, increased PaO2, and increased oxygen saturation on HFV were associated with increased survival in patients who were subsequently treated with extracorporeal life support.

Objectives To assess automated external defibrillator (AED) distribution and cardiac emergency preparedness in Michigan secondary schools and investigate for association with school sociodemographic characteristics. Study design Surveys were sent via electronic mail to representatives from all public high schools in 30 randomly selected Michigan counties, stratified by population. Association of AED-related factors with school sociodemographic characteristics were evaluated using Wilcoxon rank sum test and χ 2 test, as appropriate. Results Of 188 schools, 133 (71%) responded to the survey and all had AEDs. Larger student population was associated with fewer AEDs per 100 students ( P P = .02), compared with smaller schools. Schools with >20% students from racial minority groups had significantly fewer AEDs available per 100 students than schools with less racial diversity ( P = .03). Schools with more students eligible for free and reduced lunch were less likely to have a cardiac emergency response plan ( P = .02) and demonstrated less frequent AED maintenance ( P = .03). Conclusions Although AEDs are available at public high schools across Michigan, the number of AEDs per student varies inversely with minority student population and school size. Unequal distribution of AEDs and lack of cardiac emergency preparedness may contribute to outcomes of sudden cardiac arrest among youth.

OBJECTIVE To describe patterns of transfer, resource utilization, and clinical outcomes associated with interhospital transfer of critically ill and injured children. DESIGN Secondary analysis of administrative claims data. PARTICIPANTS Children 0 to 18 years in the Michigan Medicaid program who underwent interhospital transfer for intensive care from January 1, 2002 to December 31, 2004. The 3 sources of transfer from referring hospitals were: emergency department (ED), ward, or intensive care unit (ICU). MEASUREMENTS Mortality and duration of hospital stay at the receiving hospitals. RESULTS Of 1643 interhospital transfer admissions to intensive care at receiving hospitals, 62%, 31%, and 7% were from the ED, ward, and ICU of referring hospitals, respectively. Nineteen percent had comorbid illness, while 11% had organ dysfunction at the referring hospital. After controlling for comorbid illness, patient age, and pretransfer organ dysfunction; compared with ED transfers, mortality in the receiving hospital was higher for ward transfers (odds ratio [OR], 1.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02–3.03) but not for ICU transfers. Also, compared with ED transfers, hospital stay was longer by 1.5 days for ward transfers and by 13.5 days for ICU transfers. CONCLUSION In this multiyear, statewide sample, mortality and resource utilization were higher among children who underwent interhospital transfer to intensive care after initial hospitalization, compared with those transferred directly from emergency to intensive care. Decision-making underlying initial triage and subsequent interhospital transfer of critically ill children warrants further study. Journal of Hospital Medicine 2009;4:164–170. © 2009 Society of Hospital Medicine.

Background: Neither professional consensus nor evidence exists to guide the choice of essential hospital disaster interventions. The objective of our study was to demonstrate a method for developing consensus on hospital disaster interventions that should be regarded as essential, quantitatively balancing needs and resources.Methods: A panel of pediatric acute care practitioners developed consensus using a modified Delphi process. Interventions were chosen such that workload per staff member would not exceed the previously validated maximum according to the Therapeutic Intervention Scoring System. Based on published models, it was assumed that the usual numbers of staff would care for a disaster surge of 4 times the usual number of intensive care and non–intensive care hospital patients.Results: Using a single set of assumptions on constrained resources and overwhelming needs, the panel ranked and agreed on essential interventions. A number of standard interventions would exceed crisis workload constraints, including detailed recording of vital signs and fluid balance, administration of vasoactive agents, invasive monitoring of pressures (central venous, intraarterial, intracranial), dialysis, and tube feedings.Conclusions: The quantitative methodology and consensus development process described in the present report may have utility in future planning. Groups with appropriate expertise must develop action plans according to authority within each jurisdiction, addressing likely disaster scenarios, according to the needs in each medical service region, using available regional resources, and accounting for the capabilities of each institution. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2009;3:27–32)

Purpose The study aimed to examine the effect of interhospital transfer on resource utilization and clinical outcomes at a tertiary pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) among patients with sepsis or respiratory failure. Materials and methods Data on 2146 consecutive admissions with respiratory failure or sepsis to the PICU were analyzed. Data included demographics, admission source, and outcomes. Admission source was classified as interhospital transfer from the emergency departments (ED), wards, or PICUs of referring hospitals; or from the study hospital ED (direct). Results Compared with direct admissions, inter-PICU transfers had higher crude mortality (odds ratio, 1.93; 95% confidence interval, 1.31-2.84) but not significant mortality difference (odds ratio, 1.16; 95% confidence interval, 0.71-1.86) after adjusting for illness severity, age, and sex. Conversely, ED transfers had lower PICU mortality than direct ED admissions. Children with transfer admissions stayed significantly longer and used more intensive care technology in the study PICU than children directly admitted (P < .01). In comparisons within quartiles of mortality risk, inter-PICU transfers had longer hospitalization and higher mortality in all but the highest quartile. Conclusions Interhospital transfer, particularly inter-PICU transfer, was associated with significant hospital resource consumption that often correlated with admission illness severity. Future prospective studies should identify determinants of pretransfer illness severity and investigate decision making underlying interhospital transfer.

Objective: To examine associations between mortality, length of stay, and the sources of admission to tertiary pediatric intensive care. Design: A retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data. Setting: A tertiary medical center with a 16-bed medical-surgical intensive care unit and a 15-bed cardiac pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Patients: All admissions from July 1, 1998, through June 30, 2004. Multivariable regression methods compared length of stay and mortality between the sources of PICU admission, controlling for multiple variables, including severity of illness. Interventions: None. Measurements and Main Results: Of 8,897 eligible admissions, 74% were directly from the study hospital’s emergency department or operating rooms, while 26% were from indirect sources, including the study hospital’s wards (11%) or interhospital transfer from either non-PICU (12%) or PICU settings (3%). Compared with emergency department admissions, ward admissions had higher odds of mortality (odds ratio 1.65, 95% confidence interval 1.08–2.51), transfer admissions from non-PICU settings did not have elevated odds of mortality (odds ratio 0.80, 95% confidence interval 0.51–1.25), and inter-PICU transfer admissions had higher odds of mortality (odds ratio 1.43, 95% confidence interval 0.80–2.56), although not reaching statistical significance. Compared with emergency department admissions, ward admissions stayed almost 4 days longer in the PICU, while interhospital transfer admissions from non-PICU and PICU settings stayed 2 and 6 days longer, respectively. Conclusions: Outcomes of tertiary pediatric intensive care vary significantly by source of admission. Strategies aimed at reduction of mortality at the tertiary PICU should target transfer admissions from the hospital’s wards and from PICUs of other hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: To determine mortality, length of stay, and factors associated with readmissions to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). DESIGN: A retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data. SETTING: A 16-bed medical-surgical tertiary PICU and a coexisting 15-bed pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. PATIENTS: All admissions from July 1, 1998, through June 30, 2004. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Of 8,885 total eligible admissions, 711 (8%) were readmissions to the PICU. The median age of the overall cohort was 35.2 months (interquartile range, 5.5-128.2). Readmitted patients were younger (10.4 vs. 37.7 months, p < .01), had greater severity of illness (p < .01), and were more likely to be admitted emergently (p < .01), in comparison with single admissions. In multivariate analyses, readmitted patients had a trend toward higher odds of mortality (odds ratio, 1.39; 95% confidence interval, 0.98-1.98) and stayed 2.96 days longer in the PICU (95% confidence interval, 1.98-3.94) compared with single admissions to the PICU. Factors independently associated with PICU readmission were infant age (odds ratio, 1.98; 95% confidence interval, 1.57-2.49), emergent admission (odds ratio, 2.21; 95% confidence interval, 1.78-2.77), illness severity (odds ratio, 1.03; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-1.04), and time of the year between July and September (odds ratio, 1.52; 95% confidence interval, 1.20-1.93). A diagnosis of trauma was associated with low likelihood of PICU readmission (odds ratio, 0.30; 95% confidence interval, 0.18-0.50). CONCLUSIONS: Patients readmitted to the PICU during the same hospitalization have significantly adverse outcomes. The study highlights important factors associated with PICU readmissions that can be incorporated into efforts to reduce mortality and resource utilization associated with readmission of critically ill children.

To examine the characteristics, resource utilization, and outcomes for transfer admissions from level II to level I pediatric intensive care units (PICUs).Retrospective study.A 16-bed level I PICU in a tertiary care children's hospital.All transfer admissions from level II PICUs from January 1, 1997, through December 31, 2003; admissions for cardiac surgery were excluded. Patient characteristics, resource utilization, and outcomes were described and then compared across predefined strata (low5%, moderate 5-30%, and high30%) of predicted probability of death.None.Of 168 transfer admissions, 45%, 30%, and 25% were in the low, moderate, and high mortality risk groups, respectively. Length of stay at the referring PICU was shortest for the high-risk admissions. The most frequent diagnoses among all risk groups were respiratory failure (49%) and sepsis (14%). High-risk admissions were more likely to receive advanced therapies such as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (41.5% high risk vs. 39.2% moderate vs. 6.6% low risk, p.01) and renal replacement therapy (34.2% vs. 17.7% vs. 2.6%, p.01). The high-risk admissions had longer PICU length of stay and the highest death rates (34% vs. 10% vs. 4%, p.01) when compared with the moderate- and low-risk admissions, respectively.This study highlights significant differences in patient characteristics, resource utilization, and outcomes across mortality risk-stratified groups of critically ill and injured children transferred from level II to level I PICU care. Further studies are warranted to investigate decision making that prompt inter-PICU transfers.

OBJECTIVE. Our goal was to describe patient and hospital characteristics associated with the use of intracranial pressure monitors and outcomes in critically ill children with meningitis.METHODS. This was a retrospective cohort study of children 0 to 17 years of age hospitalized with meningitis and requiring mechanical ventilation using the 1997 and 2000 Kids' Inpatient Database. We generated national estimates of rates of intracranial pressure monitoring and in-hospital mortality by patient and hospital characteristics, and compared in-hospital mortality, hospital length of stay, and total charges for children who received an intracranial pressure monitor with those who did not.RESULTS. There were an estimated 1067 and 1170 hospitalizations nationally for childhood meningitis requiring mechanical ventilation in 1997 and 2000, respectively. Most (79%) of the hospitalizations involved infants. Overall, intracranial-pressure monitors were used in 7% of hospitalizations for meningitis, with the highest rates in children aged 5 to 17 years and lowest rates in children CONCLUSION. Intracranial pressure monitoring for the treatment of critically ill children with meningitis varies by census region, the number of cases treated, and patient age. The use of intracranial pressure monitoring was not statistically associated with mortality in this national sample.

Objective. To characterize resources available for the care of critically ill and injured children in the United States. Study Design. In January through May 2004, we conducted a cross-sectional survey of medical directors of intensive care facilities for children. Results. Pediatric critical care medical directors from 257 of 337 eligible hospitals responded to the survey (response rate: 76%). The median number of beds was 12 (interquartile range: 8–17 beds), with a median of 58 admissions per PICU bed (interquartile range: 44–70 admissions per PICU bed) in 2003. The median numbers of admissions per PICU bed were not statistically different among PICUs of different sizes. Fewer than 6% of hospitals shared PICU space with space for critically ill adults. The smallest units (1–6 beds) had higher physician and nurse staffing ratios per PICU bed. Advanced therapeutic technology, particularly renal replacement and inhaled nitric oxide therapy, was significantly more likely to be available in larger PICUs (≥7 beds). Conclusions. PICUs with the fewest beds had higher physician and nurse staffing ratios per PICU bed and lower resource capacity for high-intensity renal and respiratory therapy. The impact of PICU resource availability on referral patterns and outcomes of pediatric critical illnesses warrants additional study.

Objective To determine adherence to guidelines for severe asthma care and evaluate regional variability in practice among pediatric intensive care units (PICU). Study design A retrospective cohort study of children treated for asthma in a PICU during 2000 to 2003. We utilized the Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) database to identify patients and determine use of asthma therapies when patients did not improve with standard therapy (inhaled β-agonists and systemic corticosteroids). Results Of 7125 children studied, 59% received inhaled anticholinergic medications. Use of other therapies included systemic β-agonists (n = 1841 [26%]), magnesium sulfate (n = 1521 [21%]), methylxanthines (n = 426 [6%]), inhaled helium-oxigen gas mixture (heliox) (n = 740 [10%]), and endotracheal intubation with ventilation (n = 1024 [14%]). Use of therapies varied by census region. Over half the patients (n = 524) who received ventilation did so for ≤1 day. Adjusted for severity of illness, use of mechanical ventilation varied significantly by census division; however, much of the variation was among children ventilated for ≤1 day. Conclusion Adherence to national guidelines for use of inhaled anticholinergics among critically ill children is low, and marked variation in use of invasive ventilation exists. More explicit guidelines regarding indications for invasive ventilation may improve asthma care.

To describe patient characteristics, use of technology and mortality in children with meningitis admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Retrospective cohort study. Fifteen US PICUs. All admissions with a diagnosis of meningitis between 1995 and 2000 in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit Evaluations (PICUEs) database. Of 559 patients with meningitis, 58% were male. The median age was 19 months and the median length of PICU stay was 2 days. The crude PICU mortality rate was 7%. Three hundred thirty-four (60%) patients had bacterial meningitis. Non-survivors had significantly higher Pediatric Risk of Mortality (PRISM) III scores and also constituted a larger proportion of the patients with bacterial meningitis, coma and shock upon PICU admission. The use of invasive devices was higher among non-survivors, patients with bacterial meningitis or those who were in coma or shock upon PICU admission. There was significant variation in the use of intracranial pressure (ICP) monitors by coma status and by institution. In multivariate analysis, patients had 1.26 higher odds of mortality for each unit increase in PRISM III score (odds ratio 1.26, 95% confidence interval: 1.19–1.34), while adjusting for other variables. In a large cohort of children admitted to the PICU with meningitis, severity of illness, particularly the presence of shock or coma, was significantly associated with both the higher use of invasive medical devices and higher mortality. There was significant variation in the use of ICP monitors among the various PICUs without statistical association with survival.

BackgroundChild mortality in the United States has decreased over time, with advance in biomedicine. Little is known about patterns of current pediatric health care delivery for children with the leading causes of child death (high-impact conditions). We described patient and hospital characteristics, and hospital resource use, among children hospitalized with high-impact conditions, according to illness severity.MethodsWe conducted a retrospective study of children 0–18 years of age, hospitalized with discharge diagnoses of the ten leading causes of child death, excluding diagnoses not amenable to hospital care, using the 2006 version of the Kid’s Inpatient Database. National estimates of average and cumulative hospital length of stay and total charges were compared between types of hospitals according to patient illness severity, which was measured using all-patient refined diagnosis related group severity classification into minor-moderate, major, and extreme severity.ResultsThere were an estimated 3,084,548 child hospitalizations nationally for high-impact conditions in 2006, distributed evenly among hospital types. Most (84.4%) had minor-moderate illness severity, 12.2% major severity, and 3.4% were extremely ill. Most (64%) of the extremely ill were hospitalized at children’s hospitals. Mean hospital stay was longest among the extremely ill (32.8 days), compared with major (9.8 days, p ConclusionGradation of increasing illness severity among children hospitalized for high-impact conditions was associated with concomitantly increased resource consumption. These findings have significant implications for children’s hospitals which appear to accrue the highest resource use burden due to preferential hospitalization of the most severely ill at these hospitals.

To determine whether mortality and length of stay at a pediatric trauma center differ between patients admitted by interhospital transfer and those admitted directly from the injury scene.Analysis of prospectively collected data from a pediatric trauma center database.A designated regional level I pediatric trauma center.Injured children from birth to 17 years of age hospitalized between January 1, 2006, and September 30, 2007.Incident in-hospital mortality rates and length of stay at the trauma center were compared between patients admitted directly and those admitted by interhospital transfer, controlling for potential confounders.In-hospital mortality and duration of hospitalization.Of 2192 patients admitted to the trauma center, 1175 (53.6%) were admitted directly from the injury scene. Patients admitted by interhospital transfer had higher injury severity and lower Glasgow Coma Scale scores at admission (P.01). Of 31 deaths during the study period, 26 (83.9%) were among patients admitted by interhospital transfer. These patients had a 7-fold higher unadjusted incident rate of death (incidence rate ratio, 7.16; 95% confidence interval, 2.49-20.58) compared with those admitted directly. This finding remained (incidence rate ratio, 3.01; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-8.98) after adjustment for injury severity and Glasgow Coma Scale scores, elapsed time from injury until admission at the trauma center, and age. Among survivors, patients admitted by interhospital transfer stayed longer in the hospital than those admitted directly.Pediatric trauma center mortality rates are lower among children admitted directly from the injury scene compared with those admitted by interhospital transfer.

OBJECTIVES To describe and compare hospital resource use and in-hospital mortality among critically ill hospitalized children according to comorbid illness status. DESIGN Secondary analysis of administrative data with generation of national estimates. SETTING None. PATIENTS Hospitalized children 0 to 18 yrs old with receipt of critical care services between 1997 and 2006. INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS There were 24,954 and 45,521 child hospitalizations with receipt of critical care services nationally in 1997 and 2006, respectively. In 1997, 35% of these hospitalizations had comorbid illnesses and 65% of these were in teaching hospitals. In 2006, 41% of critical care hospitalizations had comorbid illnesses, and 82% were in teaching hospitals. Cardiovascular diseases were the most common comorbid illnesses in 1997 (18%) and 2006 (22%). Mortality was significantly higher among patients with comorbid illness versus those without in 1997 (12.5% vs. 8.6%; p < .01) and in 2006 (10.8% vs. 7.8%; p < .01). Critically ill patients with comorbid illness vs. those without had significantly longer hospital stay in 1997 (30 days vs. 15 days; p < .01) and in 2006 (26 days vs. 14 days; p < .01). Corresponding charges were also significantly higher in the presence of comorbid illnesses vs. without, in 1997 ($131,203 vs. $62,070; p < .01) and in 2006 ($141,586 vs. $70,532; p < .01), expressed in 2006 U.S dollars. Across the 10-yr study period, hospital mortality was higher and hospital resource use greater among children with comorbid illness than children without. CONCLUSIONS Among pediatric hospitalizations requiring use of critical care services, comorbid illness was associated with significantly higher in-hospital mortality and significantly greater hospital resource use pattern predominantly occurring in teaching hospitals. Policymaking regarding child critical care service delivery should anticipate exacerbation of these trends in the future, which have implications for bed availability and the overall acuity level in critical care settings.