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Purpose Motor assessments generally produce a single motor competence score based on the general motor ability hypothesis, which states that motor competence is a one-dimensional trait underlying a wide range of motor skills. Yet, it is unclear whether the general motor ability hypothesis holds true in middle childhood, which is marked by an increased participation in sports and other types of physical activity. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate the structure of motor competence in middle childhood using a test battery with a large item set. Method A cross-sectional design was used to collect motor competence data of 2538 children aged 6-11 years. Participants completed the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2nd Edition Short Form (BOT-2 SF), which consists of 14 skill items and covers different motor domains. In accordance with the BOT-2 SF manual, point scores were computed for each item. Polytomous Rasch analyses (ie, general partial credit model) were carried out to investigate the construct of motor competence. Results Rasch analyses revealed different items with unordered threshold parameters, due to ceiling effects. However, after empirically rescaling the category width for each item, follow-up analyses revealed a one-dimensional structure with 12 items. Conclusion The study provides some evidence of a one-dimensional construct (ie, motor competence) underlying motor assessment in middle childhood. Continued efforts should be made to ensure that valid composite scores are used in motor assessment and to better understand the development of motor competence across childhood and into adolescence and adulthood.

The aim of this study was (1) to examine the long-term effectiveness of the "Multimove for Kids" program, a 30-week fundamental motor skill intervention (approximately 1 hour per week) for typically developing children between 3 and 8 years, and (2) to determine the influence of participation in organized sports on motor competence (MC) six years after the intervention. Of the 992 children who took part in the "Multimove" program, 399 (intervention group: N = 228, control group: N = 171) were tested again at 6-year follow-up. MC was measured with the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd Edition. To examine the long-term impact of "Multimove" on MC, and the effect of participation in organized sports a latent growth curve analysis was conducted. After the 30-week intervention, the intervention group outperformed the control group (beta = 5.57, P < .001). However, when the entire study period, including the 6-year follow-up, was considered, the intervention group made less progress in MC than the control group (beta = -0.41, P < .05). Looking at the engagement in organized sports, it was found that years of experience before the intervention had no significant influence on the evolution of MC over time, whereas a positive effect was observed for children's average sports participation (h/week) during the 6-year retention period (beta = 0.14, P < .001). Finally, children practicing predominantly object control-oriented sports during retention obtained slightly better MC scores at follow-up (beta = 0.01, P < .01). The "Multimove" intervention does not have a long-term effect on the development of MC. However, participation in organized sports has a positive influence on MC evolution over time.

The aim of this special issue in Scandinavian Journal of Science & Medicine in Sports was to provide an update of research examining motor competence and physical fitness in childhood and adolescence from a longitudinal perspective. Motor competence and physical fitness play an important role in children and adolescents' overall health and growth. Motor competence refers to an individual's degree of proficiency in performing various motor skills and is underpinned by coordination and control. Developing adequate levels of competence in fundamental motor/movement skills is critical for all children as they form the foundation for more complex skills used in games, sports and other types of physical activities across the lifespan. Physical fitness refers to an individual's capacity to perform physical activity and includes components such as cardiorespiratory fitness, musculoskeletal fitness (i.e., muscular endurance and strength), and flexibility. Motor competence and physical fitness are correlated in young people.

Competence in fundamental motor skills (FMS) facilitates physical activity participation and is important for children’s holistic development. This study aimed to systematically review the FMS levels of children worldwide, using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, studies were identified from searches across 7 databases. Studies were required to: (i) include typically developing children (3–10 years), (ii) be published in English, (iii) have been published between 2004 and 2019 and, (iv) report ≥1 TGMD-2 outcome scores. Extracted data were evaluated based on importance of determinants, strength of evidence, and methodological quality. Data from 64 articles were included. Weighted mean (and standard deviation) scores were calculated for each FMS outcome score. Analyses revealed FMS competence increases across age during childhood, with greater proficiency in locomotor skills than object control skills. Additionally, boys exhibit higher object control skill proficiency than girls. Compared to TGMD-2 normative data, children demonstrate “below average” to “average” FMS levels. This review highlights the scope for FMS development among children worldwide. These findings reinforce the necessity for FMS interventions in early educational settings, as FMS competence is positively associated with physical activity and other health outcomes.

Purpose: The present study examined whether groups of children with different physical fitness and fitness enjoyment profiles could be identified and, if so, whether the different groups varied from one another in terms of organized sports participation. Method: Five hundred and fifty-eight 8–11-year-olds (56.99% boys) participated in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness and fitness enjoyment were assessed with seven items from a standardized test battery and a pictorial scale containing pictures referring to the enjoyment in those seven physical fitness tests, respectively. To examine whether groups with different fitness and enjoyment profiles could be identified, we conducted cluster analyses based on children’s standardized physical fitness and fitness enjoyment scores. A two-way ANCOVA (sex*cluster) was conducted to investigate differences in weekly organized sports participation among each of the identified groups while controlling for age. Results: Cluster analyses revealed two groups with aligned levels of physical fitness and fitness enjoyment (i.e., relatively low-low and relatively high-high) and two groups with unaligned levels (i.e., relatively low-moderate and relatively high-moderate), respectively. Both groups with relatively high fitness scores were found to spend significantly more time in organized sports (M = 2.01 h and 2.29 h, respectively) than the two groups with relatively low fitness scores (M = 1.08 h and 0.98 h, respectively), irrespective of their enjoyment levels. Conclusion: Increasing physical fitness levels (especially among those children with suboptimal enjoyment levels) may lead to increased organized sports participation, while increased organized sports participation in its turn may lead to higher fitness levels. As such, participation in sports programs should be promoted in children of all age groups.

Background: Childhood obesity is a global public health issue. Interventions to prevent the onset of obesity in the early years are often implemented in preschool settings. The ToyBox intervention was delivered across Europe and targeted energy balance‐related behaviours in preschools and children's homes through teacher‐led activities and parental education materials and was adapted for use in Scotland. This study assessed the acceptability of the 18‐week adapted intervention to both parents and teachers. Methods: Mixed methods were employed to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. Preschool staff and children's parents/caregivers completed post‐intervention feedback surveys, from which acceptability scores were calculated and presented as proportions. Focus groups were conducted with preschool staff, whereas parents/caregivers participated in semi‐structured interviews. A thematic analysis was applied to qualitative data following the development of a coding framework. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed using SPSS and NVivo 10, respectively. Results: Preschool staff rated the intervention as highly acceptable based on post‐intervention feedback surveys (80%; mean score 8.8/11). Lower acceptability scores were observed for parents/caregivers (49%; 3.9/8). Nine preschool practitioners participated in focus groups (n = 3). User‐friendliness of the intervention materials, integration of the intervention with the curriculum, and flexibility of the intervention were identified as facilitators to delivery. Barriers to delivery were time, insufficient space, and conflicting policies within preschools with regard to changing classroom layouts. Parental interviews (n = 4) revealed a lack of time to be a major barrier, which prevented parents from participating in home‐based activities. Parents perceived the materials to be simple to understand and visually appealing. Conclusions: This study identified a number of barriers and facilitators to the delivery and evaluation of the ToyBox Scotland preschool obesity prevention programme, which should be considered before any further scale‐up of the intervention.

Objectives: Positive relationships among perceived motor competence (PMC), motivation for sports and global self- worth have been identified in previous studies by means of variable-centered analyses. However, it remains unclear how actual motor competence (AMC) relates to both correlates. To gain more insight into the role of both AMC and PMC in terms of motivation and self-worth, the present used a person-centered approach aiming at a) investigating if different combinations of AMC and PMC exist, and b) exploring how children with different types of MC-based profiles might differ in terms of quality of motivation for sports and global self-worth. Methods: 161 children (40% boys; age=8.82 ± 0.66y) completed validated questionnaires to assess PMC and global self-worth (SPPC), and motivation for sports (BREQ). Children’s AMC was assessed with the KTK. Person- centered analyses were used to identify different MC- based clusters. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to investigate differences between clusters in terms of motivation and global self-worth. Results: Four clusters could be retained: two groups were characterized by relatively high or low levels of both AMC and PMC (i.e. high-high, low-low), in addition we also identified children with relatively high AMC but relatively low PMC (high-low), and children with relatively low AMC but relatively high PMC (low-high). Children with relatively low PMC displayed significantly lower levels of autonomous motivation for sports (β0=3.88; SE=.15 and β0=4.07; SE=.15 respectively) than children with relatively high PMC; (β0=4.55; SE=.12 and β0=4.43, SE=.12), independent from whether these low levels of PMC were combined with high levels of AMC or not. A similar result was found for global self-worth. Conclusion: The results show that children with low PMC are less motivated for sports and have a lower global self-worth than children with high PMC, even if they have high AMC. These findings emphasize that developing children’s PMC seems crucial to stimulate their motivation for sports and their global self-worth.

Objective: To examine children’s energy expenditure (EE) during object projection skill performance at three intensity intervals. Methods: Children’s (42, Mage = 8.1) average metabolic equivalents of task (METs) were calculated using a COSMED K4b2 while they repeatedly performed blocks of kicking, throwing (overhand), and striking (two-handed) during 6, 12, and 30-s interval conditions. A repeated-measures analysis of covariance examined differences in METs while controlling for skill level. Results: Data indicated a main effect for interval condition (df = 2, 123, F = 94.36, p 4.0 METs) and intervals of 6s demonstrated vigorous physical activity (>7.0 METs). Practicing/performing object projection skills, even at intervals that allow for adequate instruction and feedback (i.e., 1 trial/30s), promotes MVPA in children.

Objectives To offer a user’s guide to select appropriate measures of motor competence for children and adolescents. Design Expert consensus among a working group of the International Motor Development Research Consortium (I-MDRC). Methods The guide provides information on objective (motion devices and direct observation) and subjective (self-reports and proxy reports) methods for assessing motor competence among children and adolescents. Key characteristics (age group, sample size, delivery mode, assessment time, data output, data processing) as well as limitations and practical considerations (e.g., cost, sources of error) with regard to each method are included in this paper. We do not recommend specific instruments, rather a guide to assist researchers and practitioners interested in assessing children’s motor competence. Results A decision flow chart was developed to support practitioners and researchers in selecting appropriate methods for measuring motor competence in young people. Real-life scenarios are presented to illustrate the use of different methods in research and practice. Conclusions Policy makers, practitioners and researchers should consider the strengths and limitations of each method when measuring motor competence in children and adolescents. This will allow them to choose the most appropriate instrument(s) that meets their needs.

Background Motor competence and physical fitness are important factors for promoting positive trajectories of health over time. In 2008, Stodden and colleagues developed a model that discussed the role of both factors in physical activity. Furthermore, the authors hypothesized that the relationship between motor competence and physical fitness is reciprocal and changes over time. Objective The aim of the present meta-analysis was to synthesize the evidence on the relationship between motor competence and components of physical fitness from early childhood to early adulthood and the potential influence of age. Methods Scientific databases Web of Science and PubMed were used for literatures search. German as well as English studies were included that assessed typically developing children. In accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, 93 studies between 2005 and June 2018 were screened in full. Nineteen studies comprising of 32 samples, 87 single data points from 15,984 participants aged 4.5 to 20.4 years (Mage = 11.44, SD = 4.77) were included in the analysis. ResultsA random effects model was conducted for the meta-regression with age as moderator variable. The relationship between motor competence and physical fitness was moderate to large (r = .43, p < .001) after controlling for multiple effects, including dependent samples and small sample sizes in the quantitative synthesis. Additionally, age was a small significant positive moderator of the effect size. Conclusions and implicationsThe findings provide support for a moderate to large positive relationship between motor competence and physical fitness that strengthens with increasing age. However, the results also indicate that there may be an overlap in content between motor competence and physical fitness assessments, which warrants further investigation. Further research is needed that assesses the similarities and differences also in terms of the construct structures.

The present study aimed at examining differences in motor competence (MC) in children aged 6 to 9 years old in northern, central, and southern European regions using the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK). The secondary aim of the study was to examine interactions between region and children's age, sex and weight status (determined as healthy weight or overweight/obese). Data was pooled from independent studies conducted in Finland (mean age 7.81 ± 1.19 years, n = 690), Belgium (mean age 8.25 ± 1.09 years, n = 1,896) and Portugal (mean age 8.31 ± 1.02 years, n = 758) between 2008 and 2016. Cross-cultural differences in MC and interaction effects were tested using ANOVAs and ANCOVAs. Age, sex and BMI percentile were used as covariates. Geographical region significantly explained 19% of the variance in MC, while BMI (5%), sex (3%) and age (0.3%) were significant covariates. The interaction effect of region and age (5%), region and sex (0.6%) and region and BMI (0.2%) on MC was also significant. Cross-cultural differences in children's MC seem to increase substantially across 6 to 9 years, independent of the prevalence of overweight or obesity. Girls slightly underperformed in MC compared to boys in regions where the overall level of MC was lower. On the other hand, the association between body weight status and MC seems relatively consistent across the cultures. Future cross-cultural studies should further explore the influence of individual (e.g. physical activity) and environmental (e.g. physical activity and sport policy) factors on MC development. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

AIM: This study aimed to understand the fundamental motor skills (FMS) of Belgian children using the process-oriented Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2) and to investigate the suitability of using the United States (USA) test norms in Belgium. METHODS: FMS were assessed using the TGMD-2. Gender, age and motor performance were examined in 1614 Belgian children aged 3-8 years (52.1% boys) and compared with the US reference sample. RESULTS: More proficient FMS performance was found with increasing age, from 3 to 6 years for locomotor skills and 3 to 7 years for object control skills. Gender differences were observed in object control skills, with boys performing better than girls. In general, Belgian children had lower levels of motor competence than the US reference sample, specifically for object control skills. The score distribution of the Belgian sample was skewed, with 37.4% scoring below average and only 6.9% scoring above average. CONCLUSION: This study supported the usefulness of the TGMD-2 as a process-oriented instrument to measure gross motor development in early childhood in Belgium. However, it also demonstrated that caution is warranted when using the US reference norms.

IntroductionThere is an increasing need for the adoption of effective preschool obesity prevention interventions to combat the high levels of early-childhood obesity in the UK. This study will examine the feasibility and acceptability of the adapted version of the ToyBox intervention—a preschool obesity prevention programme—for use in Scotland (ToyBox-Scotland). This will inform the design of a full-scale cluster randomised controlled trial (RCT).Methods and analysisThe ToyBox-Scotland intervention will be evaluated using a feasibility cluster RCT, which involves children aged 3–5 years at six preschools in Glasgow, three randomly assigned to the intervention group and three to the usual-care control group. The original ToyBox intervention was adapted for the Scottish context using a coproduction approach. Within the 18-week intervention, physical activity and sedentary behaviour will be targeted in the preschool through environmental changes to the classroom, physical activity sessions and movement breaks. Parents will receive home activity packs every 3 weeks containing sticker incentives and interactive parent–child games that target sedentary behaviour, physical activity, eating/snacking and water consumption. As this is a feasibility study, parameters such as recruitment rates, attrition rates and SDs of outcome measures will be obtained which will inform a power calculation for a future RCT. Additional variables to be assessed include accelerometer-measured physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep, body mass index, home screen time, eating/snacking and water consumption. Outcomes will be assessed at baseline and 14–17 weeks later. Intervention fidelity will be assessed using questionnaires and interviews with parents and practitioners, observation and session delivery records.Ethics and disseminationThis study was granted ethical approval by the University of Strathclyde’s School of Psychological Sciences and Health Ethics Committee. Results will be disseminated through publication in peer-reviewed journals, presentation at conferences and in lay summaries provided to participants.Trial registration numberISRCTN12831555.

This study evaluated the effect of a 10-week fundamental motor skill programme in pre-schoolers with motor problems. Alongside the general effect of the intervention, we also explored possible gender differences and the role of the environmental context (living community, socio-economic status, and recreational space inside/outside the house). The intervention group (n = 47; 20 boys and 27 girls) received twenty 60-min motor skill sessions (2 per week) in addition to the regular physical education curriculum for pre-schoolers; the control group (n = 46; 21 boys and 25 girls) did not receive additional practice. General motor competence, and locomotor and object control subscales, were assessed before and after the intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd edition (TGMD-2). Data regarding environmental factors were gathered through a questionnaire. A Group x Gender x Time ANOVA revealed that the intervention group benefited significantly from the intervention and scored better than the controlgroup at the post-test for general motor competence and both sub-categories (locomotor and object control skill). Moreover, the intervention programme was found to be effective in helping 49% of the intervention group to achieve an average motor skill level, according to the TGMD-2 norms, while a further decline in motor competence was observed in the control group. Interestingly, the effect appeared to be gender-specific, since object control skill improved only in girls of the intervention group. Considering the environmental context, none of the above-mentioned factors was found to have an influence on the effectiveness of the intervention. The present study highlights the need for an early motor skill programme with a gender-specific approach in order to help low skilled boys and girls master a diverse set of motor skills.

The aim of this study was to investigate the convergent and divergent validity between the Body Coordination Test for Children (KTK) and the Motor Proficiency Test for 4- to 6-Year-Old Children (MOT 4-6). A total of 638 children (5–6 yr old) took part in the study. The results showed a moderately positive association between the total scores of both tests (rs = .63). Moreover, the KTK total score correlated more highly with the MOT 4-6 gross motor score than with the MOT 4-6 fine motor score (rs = .62 vs. .32). Levels of agreement were moderate when identifying children with moderate or severe motor problems and low at best when detecting children with higher motor-competence levels. This study provides evidence of convergent and divergent validity between the KTK and MOT 4-6. However, given the moderate to low levels of agreement, either measurement may lead to possible categorization errors. Therefore, it is recommended that children’s motor competence not be judged based on the result of a single test.

BackgroundLearning to cycle is an important milestone for children, but the popularity of cycling and the environmental factors that promote the development and practice of this foundational movement skill vary among cultures and across time. This present study aimed to investigate if country of residence and the generation in which a person was born influence the age at which people learn to cycle.MethodsData were collected through an online survey between November 2019 and December 2020. For this study, a total of 9,589 responses were obtained for adults (self-report) and children (parental report) living in 10 countries (Portugal, Italy, Brazil, Finland, Spain, Belgium, United Kingdom, Mexico, Croatia, and the Netherlands). Participants were grouped according to their year of birth with 20-year periods approximately corresponding to 3 generations: 1960–79 (generation X; n = 2,214); 1980–99 (generation Y; n = 3,994); 2000–2019 (generation Z; n = 3,381).ResultsA two-way ANOVA showed a significant effect of country, F(9,8628) = 90.17, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.086, and generation, F(2,8628) = 47.21, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.122, on the age at which individuals learn to cycle. Countries with the lowest learning age were the Netherlands, Finland and Belgium and countries with the highest learning age were Brazil and Mexico. Furthermore, the age at which one learns to cycle has decreased across generations. There was also a significant country x generation interaction effect on learning age, F(18,8628) = 2.90, p < 0.001; however, this effect was negligible (ηp2 = 0.006).ConclusionsThese findings support the socio-ecological perspective that learning to cycle is a process affected by both proximal and distal influences, including individual, environment and time.