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Vegetative and reproductive characteristics, fruit yield, and biochemical compounds of six bitter melon cultivars (Iranshahr, Mestisa, No. 486, Local Japanese, Isfahan, and Ilocano) were evaluated under Karaj conditions in Iran. The phytochemical properties of the cultivars were evaluated using both shade-dried and freeze-dried samples at three fruit developmental stages (unripe, semi-ripe, and ripe). There were significant differences in the vegetative and reproductive characteristics among cultivars, where cv. No. 486 was superior to most vegetative attributes. The fruit yield of cultivars varied from 2.98–5.22 kg/plant. The number of days to male and female flower appearance ranged from 19.00–25.33 and from 25–33 days, respectively. The leaf charantin content was in the range of 4.83–11.08 μg/g. Fruit charantin content varied with developmental stage, drying method, and cultivar. The highest charantin content (13.84 ± 3.55 µg/g) was observed at the semi-ripe fruit stage, and it was much higher in the freeze-dried samples than the shade-dried samples. Cultivar No. 486 had the highest (15.43 ± 2.4 µg/g) charantin content, whereas the lowest charantin content (8.51 ± 1.15 µg/g) was recorded in cultivar cv. Local Japanese. The highest total phenol content (25.17 ± 2.27 mg GAE/g) was recorded in freeze-dried samples of ripe fruits of cv. No. 486, whereas the lowest phenol content was detected in the shade-dried samples of semi-ripe fruits of Isfahan. cv. Flavonoid content was higher with the shade-drying method, irrespective of cultivar. In conclusion, considering the fruit yield and active biological compounds in the studied cultivars, cv. No. 486 should be grown commercially because of its higher yield and production of other secondary metabolites.

Catharanthus roseus belonging to the Apocynaceae family synthesizes indole alkaloids like vinblastine and ajmalicine which are used in cancer treatment and for decrease high blood pressure, respectively. However, these compounds with a high value added are accumulated at low level in the plants. For the first time, endophytic fungi isolated from leaves (Stemphylium amaranthi) and roots (Gliomastix masseei) of C. roseus cv. Icy Pink were used as fungal elicitors to improve the biomass of C. roseus callus culture as well as the accumulation of indole alkaloids in the calli. Polyphenols and the antioxidant activity of endophytes extracts were examined. The ethyl acetate extract of S. amaranthi showed the maximum scavenging activities in 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assays. The maximum amount of total flavonoid and total phenol content were found in S. amaranthi (18.29 ± 0.03 mg gallic acid equivalents.g−1 and 0.117 ± 0.00001 mg quercetin equivalents.g−1, respectively). Also 5% cell extract and 5% culture filtrate extract of this endophytic fungus during 7 days of calli culture led to the highest contents of ajmalicine (0.735 μg.g −1 fresh weight) and vinblastine (0.059 μg.g −1 FW) respectively. Thus, endophytic fungi isolated from C. roseus could be used as fungal elicitor to improve the indole alkaloid production.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a highly valuable plant. Iran provides nearly 90% of the world&rsquo, s total saffron and is the biggest global producer. The allelopathic effects of saffron corm (SC) and saffron field soil (SFS) have been hypothesized to play an important role in replanting. Recently, adsorbent materials have been used to neutralize the effects of allelochemicals. These materials, including activated carbon and zeolite, have large surface areas, pore volumes, as well as tremendous adsorptive capacity and complex chemical and physical properties. In this study, three independent experiments were conducted. In the first test, the allelopathic effects of aqueous and methanolic extracts of SC remnant and 9-year-old SFS as well as filtered aqueous extract of soil were investigated. In the second assay, the effects of SC remnants and SFS with different ages (i.e., 4, 6, and 9 years old) in combination with adsorbents were examined on the germination and growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings by the sandwich method. In the third experiment, we examined the effects of SC remnants combined with adsorbents on lettuce growth parameters. Our results showed that the allelopathic effects of aqueous and methanolic extracts of SC remnant were significantly superior to those of 9-year-old SFS. The aqueous extract of SC remnant reduced the root length of lettuce by 50%. The use of activated carbon and zeolites significantly decreased the observed allelopathic effect. Moreover, lettuce growth in rhizosphere soil was significantly inhibited by SC remnant and SFS extracts. The allelopathic effects of SC remnants caused a growth imbalance between the shoot and roots. Based on biochemical analyses, using the adsorbents increased the carotenoid content and chlorophyll index of lettuce by 23.33% and 5.25%, respectively. Adsorbents may play a role in treating soils contaminated by allelochemicals.

In order to understand the effects of ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation and salinity stress on visual quality and morphological parameters, one-year-old seedlings of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) were grown under three UV-B levels (0, 4.32, 6.05 kJ m-2 d-1) and four salinity regimes (Control, 50, 100 and 150 mM NaCl) under greenhouse conditions. Results showed that, enhanced UV-B radiation increased visual quality, growth index, plant biomass, shoot/root ratio, number of branches and leaves, leaf fresh and dry weight, leaf area index, specific leaf area, leaf thickness. UV-B radiation had no significant effect on root length, however, shoot height, length of axillary shoots, length of inter node, leaf area, leaf length and width and concentration of chlorophyll b were negatively impacted by UV-B radiation. On the other hand, salinity caused significant decrease in plant biomass, root length, shoot height, shoot/root ratio, length of axillary shoots, length of inter node, number of branches and leaf area, leaf area index, leaf length and width, leaf fresh and dry weight, specific leaf area and concentration of Photosynthetic pigments. But, number leaves and leaf thickness significantly increased under NaCl salinity treatments. Visual quality and growth index were hardly affected by increasing salinity until 100 mM, but declined clearly at 150 mM NaCl salinity. Interaction between UV-B irradiation and salinity showed that, pre-treatment with UV-B irradiation alleviated harmful effects of NaCl and improved visual quality rosemary plants.

In this research, agro-morphological variation among twenty genotypes of Mentha longifolia L. was assessed in 2 years based on agricultural production under water stress condition. The experiment was arranged in split–split-plot design with water stress treatment in two irrigation levels of 100% (as control) and 60% field capacity in three replications. The result of variance analysis indicated that there was a significant variation (P ≤ 0.01) in traits among the genotypes and in response to the water deficit condition. Different traits were measured such as plant height, yield, date of flowering, inflorescence length, stem diameter, fresh and dry weight of leaf, essential oil content, and essential oil yield. Results showed that traits such as yield and essential oil yield had considerable variation, varying from 374.17 to 899.33 g m−2 and 17.7–391.6 kg ha−1 on the analysis in response to water stress condition, respectively. Cluster analysis using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic means grouped the studied twenty genotypes into two major clusters based on agro-morphological traits which all the studied genotypes were known as yield ecotype. Five genotypes including Hormozagan, Khuzestan, Kerman-1, West Azarbaijan, and Ghazvin had the most significant biomass and essential oil performance and resistance under water stress condition that can be introduced for domestication breeding programs and cultivation.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the important aromatic plants belonging to the family Lamiaceae, which is used as an herb, spice as well as fresh vegetable.The present study was performed to determine the irrigation depth index under different management conditions with evaluating the effect of deficit irrigation, soil texture and nano fertilization on basil. The experiment was performed as a factorial based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 18 treatments and three replications at weather station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Deficit irrigation treatments consisted of three levels of irrigation (I1=100% ETc), (I2=75% ETc), (I3=50%ETc) and three levels of nano fertilizers, containing nano fertilizer with full concentration (F1), 70% (F2), and nonusing of nano fertilizer (F3) were implemented in two light soil texture (S1) and medium soil texture (S2). The results showed that the average actual evapotranspiration estimation by REC-P55 device has been equal to 3.38 mm at the beginning of the growing period of basil, which amount has increased to 8.60 mm during basil development in the middle of growth period. The results of crop coefficient analysis showed that the maximum kc of basil (1.42) was detected in July. The results also indicated that the highest water use efficiency (WUE) was obtained in terms of fresh and dry herb yield as 2.06 and 0.37 kg/m3 in S2I3F3 treatment, respectively, while the maximum water use efficiency in terms of seed yield (0.37 kg/m3) was obtained in S1I2F2 treatment. Using the research results, according to different levels of water use of functions of yield Y(w), cost C(w), and benefit B(w) for basil based on mathematical and economic analysis of these functions, irrigation index and optimal irrigation depths were evaluated. It was found that with deficit irrigation under water restriction conditions, with the aim of maximum use of water volume unit, the optimal water consumption depth will be reduced by 20% compared to maximum irrigation mode. Also, with this amount of deficit irrigation, the maximum Rial return per cubic meter of water consumption would be as 1849 Rials.

The inhibitory activities of the leachates and volatiles from 53 plant species (spices and herbs) were evaluated against lettuce (Lactuca sativa &ldquo, Great Lakes 366&rdquo, ) seedling growth using the sandwich and dish pack methods, respectively. With the sandwich method, parsley (Petroselinum sativum) showed the strongest inhibitory effect on lettuce radicle growth (77%), followed by tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) (72%). However, caraway (Carum carvi), dill (Anethum graveolens) (seed), laurel (Laurus nobilis), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), and sage (Salvia officinalis) were the most inhibitory species (100% inhibition of lettuce radicle and hypocotyl growth inhibition at all distance wells) in the dish pack method. Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) also showed strong inhibitory activity (100% for radicle and hypocotyl growth inhibition at all 41 and 58 mm distance wells). The headspace sampling and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified the main inhibitory active compounds as carvone in caraway and dill (seeds), 1,8-cineole in laurel and cardamom, and borneol in thyme. Both camphor and 1,8-cineole were detected in rosemary and sage, and the total activity evaluation showed that camphor was the major inhibitory compound in rosemary, although both compounds played equal roles in sage.

Medicinal and aromatic plants have the ability to transmit volatile allelochemicals and affect their surrounding organisms. In this regard, their interaction should also be considered. The inhibitory effects of 112 essential oils on lettuce seed and seedling were investigated by cotton swab method. Germination (G%), Mean germination time (MGT), Lethal of embryo (L%), dormancy (D%), radicle growth (R%), and hypocotyl growth (H%) were measured. Two methods were used for evaluating allelopathic interaction effects: the simplified modified dilution check-board technique (SMCT) and the isobologram. Thymus daenensis had the highest inhibitory effect on G% (IC50 = 2.9 ppm) and the most lethal effect on the embryo (LC50 = 7.2 ppm). Thymus transcaspicus, Dracocephalum moldavica, Artemisia sieberi and Amomum subulatum had the greatest effect on MGT. Ziziphora tenuior, Trachyspermum ammi and Pelargonium graveolens had the highest effect on D%. Origanum vulgare was the strongest growth inhibitor. The highest synergistic effect on G% was in A. subulatum + Mentha suaveolens, on H% was related to Perovskia abrotanoides + T. daenensis, and on R% was observed in Artemisia vulgaris + M. suaveolens. The results of this study can lead to identification of new phytotoxic compounds in EOs and control weeds more effectively.

Essential oils (EOs) of three Iranian cultivated Nepeta species were investigated. The oils were obtained by hydrodistillation of air-dried plant materials at full flowering stage and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy (GC/MS). In total, 89 compounds were detected. In over 2 years, a number of constituents were identified in the EO of Nepeta binaloudensis first and second years (26 and 37, respectively), Nepeta cataria (25 and 32, respectively), and Nepeta assurgens (45 and 50, respectively). In the oils of N. binaloudensis, 4a-α,7-α,7a-α-nepetalactone (NL) 59.7% and 1,8-cineole (19.6%) during the first and second years, respectively, were the main constituents. The main components of N. cataria were 4a-α,7-α,7a-β-NL (72.8%) and 4a-α,7-β,7a-α-NL (73.9%) during the first and second years, respectively, and 4a–α,7-α,7a-α-NL (55.5%) and 1,8-cineole (24.1%) during the first and second years, respectively, were the main constituents of N. assurgens. The results showed that NLs isomers and 1,8-cineole were the main components of the oils of three cultivated Nepeta species.

Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) is a medicinal plant with valuable specialised metabolites such as triterpene sweetener glycyrrhizin. Salinity stress is the main environmental stress limiting plant growth and development. The effects of six levels of NaCl (0, 100, 200, 400, 600, and 800 mM) on growth, osmolyte content, oxidative stress markers, antioxidant enzyme activities, K+/Na+ ratio, glycyrrhizin content, and gene expression of glycyrrhizin biosynthesis (bAS, CYP88D6, and CYP72A154) were investigated in licorice rhizomes of two populations. The results showed that the salt stress progressively reduced the growth parameters and increased the proline concentrations in the rhizomes. K+/Na+ ratio showed a significant decrease under salinity as compared to the controls. Salt stress resulted in oxidative stress on the rhizomes, as indicated by increased lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide concentrations and elevated the activities of antioxidant enzymes (i.e., ascorbate peroxidase and superoxide dismutase). The glycyrrhizin content increased only under 100 and 200 mM NaCl treatments. The same trend was observed in the expression of bAS, CYP88D6, and CYP72A154 genes in Fars population. Fars population was found to have more glycyrrhizin content than Khorasan population. But, growth, glycyrrhizin content, and biosynthesis genes of glycyrrhizin showed more reduction in Khorasan population as compared to those of Fars population. The results indicate that the application of 100 mM NaCl up-regulated the expression of key genes involved in the biosynthesis of triterpenoid saponins and directly enhanced the production of glycyrrhizin. Accordingly, G. glabra can be introduced as a halophyte plant.

Narcissus spp. are an economically important crop for medicines in relation with the alkaloids production, mainly galanthamine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. In this article an extensively study of the phytochemistry of both bulbs of different species and varieties of Narcissus grown in Iran and in vitro culture of these plants was investigated. In particular, the Amaryllidaceae alkaloid profile and the galanthamine and lycorine contents in wild bulbs of Narcissus papyraceus (G5) and four varieties of Narcissus tazetta (N. tazetta var. Shahla (G4), N. tazetta var. Shastpar (G1), N. tazetta var. Meskin (G2), N. tazetta var. Panjehgorbei (G3)), growing in Iran are reported. The alkaloid profiles were investigated by GC–MS and LC–MS and the quantitative analysis was performed using GC–MS. In total, thirty alkaloids were identified among them nine alkaloids were observed with the both methods of analysis. The variety Meskin of N. tazetta (G2), showed the highest diversity of alkaloids and the highest content in galanthamine. On this last species (G2) and on N. tazetta var. Shahla (G4), the effects of auxins 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid (Picloram) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) at concentrations of 25 and 50 μM were studied on the induction of callus and its capacity to induce organogenesis and alkaloid diversity. All auxins, at the concentrations of 25 and 50 μM, produced calli. Bulblets and roots were formed on calli grown only in the presence of 25 or 50 μM NAA. GC–MS analyses showed the presence of galanthamine and lycorine in calli, roots and bulblets, with all auxins whatever the concentration used while demethylmaritidine and tazettine were found in differentiated tissue cultures cultivated on the medium containing NAA (25 or 50 μM) or in calli initiated with Picloram (50 μM). Precursor 4’-O-methylnorbelladine (MN) of Amaryllidaceae alkaloids feeding was found to significantly improve the accumulation of both galanthamine (82 μg/g DW) and lycorine (1800 μg/g DW) in bulblets of N. tazetta var. Meskin (G2).

Safranal, the main volatile chemical of Saffron (Crocus sativus) was studied to estimate its allelopathic effects on the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll, leaf electrolyte leakage, fresh weight, catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POX) activity of the test plant Lettuce (Lactuca sativa). In this study, the effective concentration (EC50) of safranal on CAT was estimated to be 6.12 &micro, g/cm3. CAT activity was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by the increase in the safranal concentration while POX activity was increased. Moreover, Safranal caused significant physiological changes in chlorophyll content, leaf electrolyte leakage, and fresh weight of several weed species with Lolium multiflorum being the most sensitive. Furthermore, 5 &micro, M Safranal showed significant inhibitory activity against dicotyledonous in comparison to the monocotyledons under greenhouse conditions. The inhibition of the CAT by safranal was similar to those of uncompetitive inhibitors, and therefore the decline in carbon fixation by plants might be the mechanism behind the inhibitory activity of safranal.

Lime-induced Fe- deficient soil causes plant Fe-deficiency, which can be overcome with the foliar application of liposomal Fe fertilizers capable of delivering Fe efficiently to plant tissues. In the current investigation, the effect of foliar fertilization of the Fe-liposome (Fe-L) in two concentrations (2.5 and 5 fold diluted) on sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) was studied and vegetative growth, the ferrous/total Fe content, and also essential oil constituents were evaluated. In comparison, the FeSO4- EDTA and vehicle (citrate buffer) were used. The experiment was conducted in Completely Randomized Design with four treatments and three replications. The sweet basil plants were grown in pots with calcareous loamy soil (pH ∼ 7.6, with an appropriate amount of N, K and P) in a greenhouse. Egg-derived phosphatidylcholine (EPC)/Fe-liposomes (200 nm in diameter and monodisperse size distribution) enhanced the fresh and dry weight, increased total leaf area, and improved chlorophyll, ferrous, and essential oil content of the plants compared to the FeSO4 fertilizer. Moreover, methyl chavicol was found to be the primary compound in the essential oil using a gad-chromatogram-mass spectroscopy GC–MS. Overall, the Fe-liposome is a superior fertilizer than FeSO4- EDTA in terms of Fe-delivery and plant recovery.

Salinity is the major environmental stress affecting growth and physiological processes in plants. Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) is a perennial medicinal plant having many secondary metabolites. The effects of 0, 100, 200, 400, 600, and 800 mM NaCl on growth parameters, leaf relative water content, chlorophyll index, gas exchange parameters, membrane stability index, antioxidant activity, phenolic compounds, flavonoid, and soluble carbohydrate contents of licorice populations (Fars and Khorasan) cultivated with different rhizomes diameters were evaluated. The soil and rhizomes elements were also studied. The results indicated that the salinity significantly decreased the growth parameters, relative water content, and membrane stability index, compared to the controls. The thicker rhizomes can grow more than thinner ones in saline soil. Chlorophyll index and leaf gas exchange were declined under salt stress. Besides, the soluble carbohydrate content was decreased. Salinity caused oxidative stress in licorice rhizomes, so that by decreasing the membrane stability index, antioxidant capacity, phenolic compounds, and flavonoid contents of rhizomes have increased in line with NaCl treatments. Na+, Cl−, and Ca2+ levels increased, but K+ concentration was reduced. The PCA-biplot analysis revealed that Fars and Khorasan populations had different responses to salinity. The length of rhizomes, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and soluble carbohydrates of two licorice populations and salinity stress had the largest amount of difference of traits. Thus, the elevation of osmolytes, the nutrient balance, and the antioxidant capacity lead to protect of licorice under osmotic, ionic, and oxidative stress, which is caused by the salinity stress. Accordingly, G. glabra can withstand salinity up to 600 mM NaCl and be introduced as a halophyte plant.

The effects of NaCl stress on some growth parameters and ion accumulation in roots, shoots, and leaves of four fig genotypes (S × P, S × K, S × Sh, and S × D) were investigated. Eight-month-old fig plants growing in a mixture of sand, leaf mold, and clay (1:1:1) were irrigated with solutions containing NaCl at various levels: 0.6 (S0), 4 (S1), 6 (S2), and 8 (S3) dS·m−1. Salinity stress decreased growth parameters to a different extent in each genotype. Leaf water potential, stomatal conductance (gS), leaf number, shoot height, and root fresh weight were significantly decreased by salinity; and among the four fig genotypes studied, S × P and S × K were the most sensitive and the most tolerant genotypes, respectively. Furthermore, the highest reduction in shoot diameter and shoot fresh and dry weight were observed in S × Sh and the lowest reduction in S × K. Root dry weight decreased by increasing salinity, mainly in S × D. At S1 salinity treatment in both S × Sh and S × D genotypes, Na+ ion concentration was higher in leaves than in roots, but this pattern was not evident in S × P and S × K genotypes in NaCl treatments below S2 and S3, respectively. Chloride concentrations in all organs increased and were higher in roots than in both leaves and shoots, except in S × D genotype that accumulated more Cl− ion in leaves than in roots at S2 and S3 levels. These results indicate that the ability to sequester Na+ and Cl− ions in roots differs among the genotypes used in this study. Overall, results indicated that salinity tolerance in fig tree is strongly associated with Na+ and Cl− ions exclusion mechanism from shoots. Moreover, to our surprise, salinity stress considerably increased K+ ion concentration in leaves and shoots of salt-sensitive genotypes. Our proposed explanation is that the inability of salt-sensitive fig genotypes to prevent delivery of hazardous ions to shoot is compensated by tissue tolerance mechanism. Keeping high cytosolic K+ ion may lead to better sequestration of Na+ ion in vacuoles and, therefore, enable the genotypes with poor Na+ exclusion mechanism to handle large amounts of Na+ ion in leaves. Finally, S × K is the most salt-tolerant genotype due to efficient exclusion of Na+ and Cl− ions and lower reduction in growth factors.

Three harvest stages including one-stage (one time after 36 days), two-stage (two times, every 18 days) and three-stage were considered in order to evaluate the effect of gradual harvest of oleoresin on essential oil quantity and quality of male and female Pistacia atlantica Subsp. Kurdica. The results demonstrated that essential oil percentage was not affected by genders and treatments. Limonene in male gender and o-Cymene in female gender were more in comparison with each other. Moreover, α-pinene in harvesting of two-stage was lower than other times. Furthermore, 4,8-epoxy-para-mentyh-1-ene in male gender as well as β-cyclocitral in female gender only found in the harvesting of one-stage, while other compounds found in the essential oil were not affected by different stages of gradual harvest.

In this study, spearmint leaves were dried using hot-air (HA) and infrared (IR) techniques. Dried products were comprehensively analyzed for their drying time, specific energy consumption (SEC), rehydration, essential oil content and color changes. The IR drying process was carried out at radiation intensity levels of 1562, 3125 and 4688 W/m2, emitter to sample distances of 10, 15 and 20 cm and air temperatures of 30, 40 and 50 °C. For HA drying, three levels of air temperature (30, 40 and 50 °C) and air velocity (0.5, 1 and 1.5 m/s) were applied. The results indicated that drying time, SEC and color changes were lower in IR drying of spearmint than in HA drying. IR drying gave the highest essential oil content (0.95 %) and rehydration ratio (0.788 kg water/kg dry matter (DM)). Totally, it was observed that IR drying of spearmint resulted in better quality preservation and had lower energy costs in comparison to HA drying.

One of the major factors limiting the production of medicinal plants in arid and semi-arid areas is water deficit or drought stress. One-third of the land in the world is arid and semi-arid and is inhabited by nearly 4 &times, 108 people. Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil) is a valuable medicinal plant that is sensitive to water deficit, and water shortage negatively affects sweet basil yield and quality. Water availability in the root zone of basil could ameliorate the negative effects of water shortage. To the best of our knowledge, although the effects of hydrophilic polymers (HPs) have been studied in different agricultural crops, the effects of HP application in medicinal plants have not been previously investigated. This investigation was conducted to explore the effects on water use efficiency when using Stockosorb&reg, (STS) and psyllium seed mucilage (PSM) as hydrophilic polymers (HPs) and the effects of these HPs on essential oil quality, quantity, and yield. The research was set up in a factorial experiment on the basis of completely randomized block design with three replications. We used two HPs, STS (industrial) and PSM (herbal), with two methods of application (mixed with soil, mixed with soil + root) at four concentrations (0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3% (w/w)). Results showed that the STS and PSM significantly increased the dry herb yield (both shoot and root) in comparison to the control, and the improving effect was higher when these HPs were mixed with soil + root. The highest dry herb yield (6.74 and 3.68 g/plant for shoot and root, respectively) was detected in the PSM at 0.1% mixed with soil + root. There was not any significant difference in dry herb yield among PSM (0.1%), PSM (0.2%), and STS (0.2%) when mixed with soil + root. Soil application of PSM and soil + root application of STS at a concentration of 0.3% increased the Essential Oil (EO) content almost three-fold in comparison to the control (0.5% and 0.52% to 0.18% v/w, respectively). The maximum essential oil yield was recorded in plants treated with STS (0.2% in) or PSM (0.1%) by soil + root application (0.21 and 0.19 mL/plant, respectively). PSM at concentrations of 0.1% and 0.2% (mixed with soil + root) showed the highest water use efficiency (1.91 and 1.82 g dry weight (DW)/L H2O, respectively). STS mixed with soil also significantly improved water use efficiency (WUE) in comparison to the control. The application of these HPs improved the quality of sweet basil essential oil by increasing the linalool and decreasing the eugenol, epi-&alpha, cadinol, and trans-&alpha, bergamotene content.

A karyotype study was performed on 15 populations of Eremostachys laciniata Bunge from Iran in order to quantify the extent of cytological variation for use in breeding programmes. Ten mitotic root tip cells at the metaphase stage were prepared from each population by the squash method. The chromosomes of suitable mitotic cells were counted and various parameters, including long and short arm lengths, chromosome lengths, total length of the haploid chromosome complement, arm ratios, and the centromeric index, were measured. All 15 populations were diploid with 2n = 2x = 22 and were differentiated by their karyotypic parameters. All 15 E. laciniata populations occupied Class 1A of Stebbins’ karyotype classification, indicating the presence of a primitive symmetrical karyotype. The size of the mitotic chromosomes was medium, and mean chromosome lengths ranged from 3.84 to 4.77 μm. The shortest chromosome lengths were observed in the Ajabshir population and the longest in the Heydarabad population. T...

The influence of four drying methods (shade drying, freeze drying, oven drying and vacuum drying at 40, 50 and 60 °C) on the essential oil content and composition of lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora Kunth.) was evaluated. The essential oil content and composition of dried samples were determined by hydro-distillation using a Clevenger apparatus and gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) respectively. Results showed the highest and lowest drying times belonged to shade drying (53 h) and vacuum drying at 60 °C (3 h) respectively. Glandular trichomes were vulnerable to oven whereas vacuum drying and freeze drying preserved them. The maximum essential oil content (1.0 ml/100 g D.M.) obtained from vacuum-dried (60 °C) and oven-dried (40 °C) samples. Freeze drying preserved the highest amount of oxygenated monoterpenes, especially citral (64.7%) but the highest amounts of limonene and 1,8-cineole (8.2 and 7.2% respectively) were determined in vacuum-dried (60 °C) leaves. Apart from the standard oven drying at 40 °C, vacuum drying at 60 °C can be considered as an alternative approach to dry lemon verbena in a significantly shorter drying time.

International audience; Climate change projections predict warmer and drier conditions. In general, moderate to severe water stress reduce plant vegetative growth and leaf photosynthesis. However, vegetative and reproductive growths show different sensitivities to water deficit. In fruit trees, water restrictions may have serious implications not only on tree growth and yield, but also on fruit quality, which might be improved. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to understand the complex interrelations among the physiological processes involved in within-tree carbon acquisition and allocation, water uptake and transpiration, organ growth, and fruit composition when affected by water stress. This can be studied using process-based models of plant functioning, which allow assessing the sensitivity of various physiological processes to water deficit and their relative impact on vegetative growth and fruit quality. In the current study, an existing fruit-tree model (QualiTree) was adapted for describing the water stress effects on peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) vegetative growth, fruit size and composition. First, an energy balance calculation at the fruit-bearing shoot level and a water transfer formalization within the plant were integrated into the model. Next, a reduction function of vegetative growth according to tree water status was added to QualiTree. Then, the model was parameterized and calibrated for a late-maturing peach cultivar ("Elberta") under semi-arid conditions, and for three different irrigation practices. Simulated vegetative and fruit growth variability over time was consistent with observed data. Sugar concentrations in fruit flesh were well simulated. Finally, QualiTree allowed for determining the relative importance of photosynthesis and vegetative growth reduction on carbon acquisition, plant growth and fruit quality under water constrains. According to simulations, water deficit impacted vegetative growth first through a direct effect on its sink strength, and; secondly, through an indirect reducing effect on photosynthesis. Fruit composition was moderately affected by water stress. The enhancements performed in the model broadened its predictive capabilities and proved that QualiTree allows for a better understanding of the water stress effects on fruit-tree functioning and might be useful for designing innovative horticultural practices in a changing climate scenario.

We aimed to assess the impacts of packaging material (PM), and storage temperature (ST) and period (SP) on the antioxidant activity (AA) and total phenol (TP) content of cumin, Black Zira, fennel, and ajowain seeds using the split-factorial method. The experiments were conducted in triplicate. The SP (either 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, or 15 months) was the main plot. The ST included either 20 ± 3°C or 30 ± 3°C, and PMs were paper, polyethylene, vacuumed aluminium, vacuum polyethylene-polyamide, and the gas compositions of 98% N2 + 2% O2 and 90% N2 + 10% O2. The results showed that the AA of fennel and ajowain seeds and the TP of all of the species decreased with increasing storage period. The AA and TP content of fennel and ajowain were higher at 30 ± 3°C compared to 20 ± 3°C, but cumin and Black Zira contained higher TP content and AA at 20 ± 3°C. Overall, appropriate PMs to maintain the AA and TP content of the seeds during storage were dependent on the plants species.

French tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus L.) is a perennial herb in the family Asteraceae that is widely cultivated throughout the word. In order to study the effect of foliar application of Ca(NO3)2 and KNO3 on vegetative traits, essential oil yield, content and composition, a field experiment was conducted. Treatments including four levels of Ca(NO3)2 and KNO3 fertilizers (0, 1.5, 3, and 6 g/l) were set up in a factorial experiment based on Randomized Completely Block Design with three replications. The results showed that Ca(NO3)2 application significantly affected all tarragon vegetative traits, but had no significant effect on essential oil content. Furthermore, essential oil yield increased with Ca(NO3)2 treatments by an average of 64.4% compared to the control. Ca(NO3)2 fertilization increased leaf K and Ca contents. The gradual increase of Ca(NO3)2 rates decreased estragole by 18.6%. On the other hand, KNO3 fertilization significantly increased all of plant growth characters, leaf K and Ca contents. Foliar KNO3 application significantly increased essential oil content and the yield by an average of 42.5% and 119.6%, respectively. The lowest content percentage of estragole (76.83%) is obtained from 1.5 g/l KNO3 decreased by 0.6% an average when compared to the control. The interactive application of Ca(NO3)2 and KNO3 significantly affected the number of branch/plant, leaf K content and all of the essential oil constituents. Interactive treatment of Ca(NO3)2 and KNO3 decreased estragole content by an average of 12.9%. In general, it can be concluded that foliar application of Ca(NO3)2 and KNO3 can considerably improve the productivity traits, essential oil content, yield and composition of tarragon plant.

This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of organic (liquid humic acid) and inorganic (potassium sulphate) on phytochemical and morphological attributes of St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum). Thus, a research was conducted in a factorial experiment (3×3) based on completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments consisted of potassium sulphate (Kx) at three concentrations (0, 60 and 100 Kg/h) which were treated before flowering and humic acid (Hx) at three concentrations (0, 20 and 40 L/h) which were fertigated four times of 15-days intervals. Results showed that the plant stem height, number of flowering stems and number of flowers were significantly affected by simple effect of each fertilizers (p100 and H40). The highest stem height, number of flowers and number of flowering stems also belonged to these treatments. Increment of applied fertilizers led to increase of obtained essential oils, so that application of these fertilizers simultaneously increased the essential oil content up to 6-fold. Regarding the antioxidant activity, applied fertilizers at their high levels showed significant effects on decrease of EC50, which means the increment of antioxidant activity of H. perforatum.

The fruits of Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch were collected throughout Iran from ten populations and assessed for their essential oil composition and antioxidant activity. The volatiles were analyzed by GC/MS/FID after microdistillation and SPME. All 10 accessions had the same major volatiles roughly in the order γ-terpinene = cuminal > γ-terpinen-7-al > p-cymene > limonene > α-terpinen-7-al although they origin from quite different sites. Nevertheless these plants that are able to grow in a wide range of environments may present the base for domestication with the aim to optimize essential oil yield with a high proportion of aldehydes. The methanolic extracts of the fruits showed a moderate antioxidant potential.

BACKGROUND The literature abounds with the impacts of drought conditions on the concentration of non-structural compounds (NSC) in peach fruits without distinction as to the direct effect of drought on fruit metabolism and its indirect effect through dilution. Moreover, there is a need to investigate the sensitivity of the fruit composition to progressive water deficit in semi-arid conditions, as well as the origin of variations in fruit composition – not only in carbohydrates and organic acids, but also in secondary metabolites such as polyphenols. RESULTS The increase in stress intensity resulted in smaller fruits and a reduction in yield. Drought increased fruit dry matter content, structural dry matter (SDM) content and firmness due to lower water import to fruits, although drought reduced fruit surface conductance and its transpiration. Drought significantly affected the concentrations of each NSC either through the decrease in dilution and/or modifications of their metabolism. The increase in hexoses and sorbitol concentrations of fruits grown under drought conditions resulted in an increase in the sweetness index but not near harvest. Malic acid concentration and content:SDM ratio increased as drought intensified, whereas those of citric and quinic acids decreased. Polyphenol concentration and content increased under severe drought. CONCLUSION The increase in stress intensity strongly affected fruit mass. The concentration of total carbohydrates and organic acid at harvest increased mainly through a decrease in fruit dilution, whereas the concentrations of polyphenols were also strongly affected through an impact on their metabolism. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

The present study was conducted to polyploidy possibility induction of two Iranian endemic mint (Mentha mozaffarianii) ecotypes. For this purpose, three experiments were done. The first experiment was factorial, based on completely randomized design with three factors and three replications that rhizomes were used for treatment. The first factor including different colchicine concentrations (0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2% that 0 as control). The second factor including two Mentha ecotypes (Ecotype A: Kamarej region and Ecotype B: Pirmohlat region) and the third factors consist of two soaking time (6 h and 12 h). In second experiment, apical meristem was treated. The factorial experiment based on randomized completely design with two factors and five replications. The factors including different colchicine concentrations (0, 0.035, 0.07, 0.15, 0.3 and 0.7%) and two ecotypes. In the third experiment, colchicine as combined with irrigation was applied. For this purpose, a factorial experiment in randomized complete design with two factors (colchicine concentrations: 0, 0.025, 0.012, 0.006% and two mint ecotypes) and three replications was conducted. At the end of all experiments, survival rate and tetraploidy percentage (by morphological change, stomata traits, flow cytometry and chromosome counts) were measured. The results showed that different treatment had significant effects on survival percent on all experiments and increasing of colchicine concentration caused decreasing plants survival. On the other hand, tetraploidy changes only in the first experiments were observed. Only in 0.025% colchicine treatment with 6 h soaking time on ecotype A, 12.66% tetraploidy was identified. Totally, it is seems that Mentha mozaffarianiihardly response to colchicine for tetraploidy induction.

Mentha longifolia L. is one of the most important aromatic and perennial herbs of the Lamiaceae family, having potential sources of essential oils and compounds with interesting pharmacological and therapeutic properties. In this study, the variability of morphological parameters, essential oil composition, and phenolic compounds such as rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid content were assessed among twenty different accessions of Iranian horsemint at full flowering stage. The average of essential oil content illustrated a high variability, ranging from 0.38% to 4.33% (w/w), and the phytomass amounts varied from 471.5 g/m2 to 860.66 g/m2. Also, the clustering of morphological traits of the studied accessions generated two main groups. The characterization of the essential oils by GC-MS/FID analyses revealed a total of forty-two constituents in the horsemint accessions. Although all the accessions were classified as oxygenated monoterpenes-rich volatile oils (42.38–94.7%), they were divided into seven main chemotypes by cluster and principal component analysis (PCA). The major constituents in the essential oil of the twenty accessions were piperitenone oxide (0.27–75.39%) > pulegone (0.17–69.49%) > trans-piperitone epoxide (0.3–54.39%) > menthone (0.5–48.12%) > 1,8-cineole (1.27–44.7%) > piperitenone (0.35–36.71%) > (Z)-β-ocimene (14.11–21.27%) > menthol (0.13–20.98%), respectively. The rosmarinic acid content of the methanolic extracts using HPLC analysis showed significant quantitative variability, ranging from 36.95 mg/100 g to 302.97 mg/100 g (based on the dry matter). Since all the accessions were subjected to similar soil and climate conditions, it was evident the priority of genetic effects on ecological factors. The high intraspecific variability in Iranian horsemint directs a holistic approach to gain novel and homogeneous genetic materials, required for the breeding programs and pharmaceutical industries.

Rumex turcomanicus Czerep., belonging to family Polygonaceae, is one of native green vegetable in Northeast Iran. Despite the high consumption, its seed germination and dormancy aspects is inconsiderable. In order to investigate the effects of seed harvesting date on seedling emergence, vigour and growth traits of R. turcomanicus Czerep., the seeds were harvested at five different times, i.e., two weeks after fruiting (WAF), 6WAF, 8WAF (mature seeds), 2 month after seed ripening (MASR) and 4MASR, and were sowed immediately, at agricultural college of Ferdowsi university of Mashhad, Iran in 2012-2013. The results was showed that the highest and lowest of seedling emergence percentage, seedling emergence rate, seedling vigour index, seedling fresh and dry weight, seedling root and shoot length, total seedling length and %final normal seedling (%FNS) was obtained in the seeds which were sowed 4MASR and 2WAF, respectively. Maximum and minimum of mean emergence time (MET) was observed in the seeds which were sowed 2WAF and 4MASR, respectively. Relationship between %FNS and MET and between %FNS and emergence percentage was highly significantly negative (-0.961) and positive (+0.962), respectively. Based on the results of this experiment, it seems that the problem of germination in most of the Rumex turcomanicus Czerep. seeds, is probably due to a kind of morphological dormancy, which is remained in most of the fresh seeds (collected 2WAF), and eliminated in the mature seeds (collected 2MASR). Also dry seed storage of the mature seeds for two months was improved seedling emergence and vigour, significantly.

Today, Ozone as a disinfectant method, without putting on the harmful effects on human and plant products, it is alternative common methods for disinfection of plant material. The research as a factorial experiment was conducted on the basis of randomized complete block design with three replications and the effects of Ozone gas on decreasing the microbial load of some important medicinal plants include: Peppermint (Mentha piperita), Summer savory (Satureja hortensis), Indian valerian(Valeriana wallichii), Meliss (Melissa officinalis) and Iranian thyme (Zataria multiflora) were investigated. Medicinal plants leaves were treated with Ozone gas concentration 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 ml/L at times of 10 and 30 then total count, coliform and mold and yeast of the samples were studied. The result showed that Ozone gas decreases microbial load of medicinal plants samples. But Ozone gas and Ozone gas in medicinal plants interaction effect had no effect on essential oil content. The lowest and the highest of microbial load were detected in samples treated with concentration of 0.9 ml/L of Ozone gas and control respectively. The highest and the lowest of microbial load were observed in Iranian thyme and Indian valerian respectively. Also result showed that Ozone gas treatment for 30 min had the greatest of effect in reducing the microbial load and 0.9 ml/L Ozone gas concentration had the lowest of microbial load. Results of this survey reflect that the use of Ozone as a method of disinfection for medicinal plants is a decontamination.

The effect of humic acid (HA) on antioxidant compounds and fruit quality of hot pepper (Capsicum annum var. Red chili) was determined in an open-field study. Pepper plants were treated with HA (0, 25, 100, 175, and 250 mg.kg ‐1 ). HA treatments affected antioxidants in the fruits (antioxidant activity, total flavonoid, capsaicin, lycopene, and β-carotene). There was no difference in total phenolic and carbohydrate between HA and control treatments. It was observed that HA applied at 100 mg kg ‐1 resulted in the highest capsaicin and lycopene contents, and the lowest values were observed in control group. Total soluble solids and titratable acidity increased in response to HA treatments, and the highest values were obtained from the highest HA treatment (250 mg kg ‐1 ).

The effect of plant growth regulators IBA (indole butyric acid), GA3 (gibberellin) and ethylene (as ethephon) in two methods of planting was investigated (each method was considered as a separate experiment) on morphological characters and yield of medicinal pumpkin. The experiments were carried out in a factorial trial based on completely randomized block design, with four replicates. The treatments were combined with priming and spraying with the above PGRs. The first seed priming with control (water), IBA 100 ppm, GA3 25 ppm and ethephon 200 ppm, and when seedling developed to 4 leaf stage sprayed there with control (water), IBA 100 ppm, GA3 25 ppm and ethephon 200 ppm for three times. In both planting methods, there were all of these treatments. The result showed that PGRs and planting method had significant effects on vegetative, flowering and yield characteristics including: leaf area %DM plant, number of male and female flowers per plant, number of fruit/plant, fruits fresh weight, seeds length and width, number of seed per fruit, seed yield, % seeds oil and oil yield. Hence spraying with GA3 25 ppm in four leaf stage at trellis method could be a suitable treatment for enhancing growth and yield of medicinal pumpkin.

The present research was carried out to evaluate response of paprika pepper (Capsicum annum L.) to nitrogen (N) fertilizer under field conditions. Nitrogen was supplied in four levels (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg ha−1). Plant height, leaf chlorophyll content, fruit weight, yield, seed number, 1000 seed weight and vitamin C were assessed at immature and mature stages. The results showed that plant height, lateral stem length and leaf chlorophyll content were influenced by N fertilizer. Data indicated that fertilization with 50 g N ha−1 resulted to the best yield and quality components at ripening stage. Although, there was no significant difference in vitamin C content among treated plants with different nitrogen levels at mature stage, but significant differences were shown between treated plants and control. Thus, these results showed that fertilization with 50 kg N ha−1 had strong impact on vegetative and reproductive growth of paprika pepper under field conditions.

Introduction . Pomegranate fruit is a good source of bioactive compounds. Although data about the importance of pomegranates in human nutrition has increased extensively in the last years, the fruit physical and chemical characteristics of some Iranian pomegranate cultivars during fruit ripening have not been investigated in detail yet. Therefore, the evaluation of physicochemical characteristics of pomegranate fruit cv. ‘Rabbab-e-Fars’ at three different stages, from fruit set to ripening, was the aim of the present study. Materials and methods . Fruit fresh weight and volume, and peel, aril, juice and seed percentage were measured as physical features and total soluble solids, pH, titrable acidity, ascorbic acid, total sugars, anthocyanins, phenolics and tannins, condensed tannins, and antioxidant activity in the juice were evaluated as the chemical properties. Results . The highest percentage of aril (57.86%) and juice (48.01%) and lowest percentage of peel (42.13%) and seed (10.49%) were observed in 140-day-old fruits. A significant increase in concentrations of total soluble solids and total sugars were recorded during fruit ripening. The ascorbic acid content decreased significantly, while the amount of total anthocyanins increased significantly with fruit maturity. Ripe fruit, which had a low titratable acidity (1.35 g·100 g-1 of fruit juice), showed a correspondingly high pH (3.23). The levels of total phenolics, total tannins, condensed tannins and antioxidant activity declined significantly during fruit ripening. Conclusion . Our results provide important information on the changes in physical and chemical properties of pomegranate fruit during ripening, which is very useful for determination of the fruit quality.

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of growing media on the amounts and chemical composition of the essential oils of two different species of Achillea eriophora and A. wilhelmsii. The essential oil obtained from these plants growing wild and under cultivated conditions was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that essential oil yield of A. eriophora when grown in wild and cultivated conditions were 2 % and 2.25 % (v/w) respectively. Camphor (30.4 %, 29.98 %), 1,8-cineole (25.24 %, 26.98 %) and camphene (6.21 %, 5.98 %) were the major compounds identified in the essential oil of A. eriophora grown in wild and cultivated conditions respectively. The oils yield of A. wilhelmsii was 0.65 % and 0.5 % (v/w) when they were grown in wild and cultivated conditions respectively. The major components were camphor (19.66 %, 25.26 %), 1,8-cineole (9.06 %, 5.77 %) and α-pinene (10 %, 7.93 %) when the plants grown in wild an...

In order to compare of different methods and identify the optimum condition for tomato seed extraction, factorial experiments with 3 replications was conducted. In the first experiment, pulp of two tomato cultivars (Faraon, Dominator) were fermented at two temperatures (25, 35 degrees C) and six periods (24, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144 h). The germination of seeds in laboratory as well as seedling emergence and preliminary growth in greenhouse were studied and measured. The results showed that effect of cultivar on traits (except of seedling emergence) was significant. Also the effect of temperature of fermentation, duration of fermentation and also interaction effects of them on seed germination were significant. Totally seed quality decreased with increasing temperature and duration of fermentation and the fermentation duration from 24 to 48 h at temperature 25 degrees C, is recommended. In the second experiment, tomato seeds were extracted by HCL (pH was arranged to 1, 2, 3 for 10, 20, 30 min), H2SO4 (pH was arranged to 1, 2, for 15, 30 min), Sodium carbonate (5, 10% for 24 and 48 h) and fermentation. Percentage germination, germination rate, length of radicle and length of plumule were used for seed quality assessment. The results showed that interaction effect between pH and duration of HCL treatments was significant for seed germination (percentage and rate) and there was an interaction effect between concentration and duration for germination rate in alkali treatments. Different extraction methods had not detrimental effect on percentage germination, but acid treatments produce very bright clean seeds in compare to other treatments.

There is a world-wide effort in agriculture to eliminate the amount of chemicals used in production technology by introducing up-to-date biological and ecological methods. One of the possible solutions is allelopathy, the utilization of the chemical interaction between plants. The literature indicates that active substances of medicinal and aromatic plants have allelopathic properties. In this project we compared allelopathic activity between Soxhelet (1/20 w/v) and maceration extracts (water and hydro-alcoholic 1/10 w/v) of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and peppermint (Mentha piperita) on seed percentage germination and germination rate of two noxious weeds, Amaranthus retroflexus and Portulaca oleracea. The experimental design was as a randomized complete block with 3 replicates. In a second preliminary experiment, we studied the effects of different extraction methods of thyme and peppermint on lettuce (Lactuca sativa) seed germination. Results showed that Soxhelet and maceration extracts (hydro-alcoholic) of peppermint completely inhibited seed germination of A. retroflexus and L. sativa (but not on P. oleracea). Maceration extracts (hydroalcoholic) of thyme completely inhibited seed germination of L. sativa and also had inhibitory effects on A. retroflexus. Soxhelet extracts of thyme completely inhibited seed germination of P. oleracea. The highest percentage germination and germination rate of the tested weeds occurred in control treatments. In conclusion, the maceration hydro-alcoholic extract (1/10) had more inhibitory activity than the maceration water extract as measured by percentage germination and germination rate of the weeds. There were no significant differences between the inhibitory effects of thyme and peppermint on seed germination using the hydro-alcoholic maceration extract. The Soxhelet extract of thyme demonstrated more inhibitory effects on P. oleracea than peppermint, but in A. retroflexus, peppermint extract exhibited more allelopathic potential than thyme. INTRODUCTION Allelopathy refers to the beneficial or harmful effects of one plant on another plant by the release of chemicals from plant organs by leaching, root exudation, volatilization, residue decomposition and other processes in both natural and agricultural systems (Ferguson and Rathinasabapathi, 2003; Putnam and Tang, 1986; Waller, 1985). Allelochemicals are organic compounds produced by plants or microorganisms that stimulate or inhibit the growth of neighbouring plants or microorganisms. Typically, plant allelochemicals are secondary metabolites produced as by-products of the acetate and shikimic acid pathways (Mattner, 2001; Rice, 1984). Allelochemicals may affect neighbouring organisms by reducing cell membrane permeability, disrupting mineral uptake, or damaging genetic material (Mattner, 2001; Rizvi et al., 1992). These allelochemicals may be actively produced by a growing plant or arise from plant residues after death. The effects of the allelochemicals may be reduced or enhanced by microorganisms. Release of allelochemicals may vary depending upon the habit and habitat of the plant. Perennials may release allelochemicals throughout the year (Callaway and Callaway, 2003). Proc. XXVII IHC-S11 Sustain. through Integr. and Org. Hort. Eds.-in-Chief: R.K. Prange and S.D. Bishop Acta Hort. 767, ISHS 2008

Employing locally adapted plants together with irrigation scheduling based on developmental stage in semi-arid and arid regions may provide an opportunity to optimize irrigation efficiency, and water savings in regions where water resources are limited. To investigate this water saving potential, the final seed yield and quality of two local plant species were investigated under water deficit conditions over two growing seasons (2003, 2004) in the northeast of Iran. In this study, black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) which is used locally as an anti-microbial and isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.) which is used as an anti-diabetic plant were exposed to four different irrigation regimes. Weekly irrigation was the control, and the three treatments based on developmental stage for both species were termination of irrigation at blooming (folded flowers), flowering, and seed formation. Isabgol seed yield was lower for all of the water deficit treatments compared to control, but black cumin showed tolerance to water deficit except when irrigation was terminated at seed formation. The lowest seed yield was obtained when irrigation was stopped at the blooming stage, and the number of seeds per plant was the main yield component affected. One thousand seed weight for both species was relatively stable across all irrigation treatments, and higher seed yield was consistent with higher straw yield and plant height. Our results did not show any reduction in oil concentration for black cumin or mucilage percentage for isabgol across all water deficit treatments.

Medicinal plants may be exposed to a wide range of microbial contamination during pre- and post- harvest stages and they can present high microbial counts. In this study, the microbial quality of 44 samples of dry herbs namely: mint ( Mentha spp.), lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis ), summer savory ( Satureja hortensis ), zataria ( Zataria multiflora ), Indian valerian ( Valeriana wallichii ), their brewing and extracts were analyzed. Total count using plat e count agar medium (PCA), coliform count by Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBL), Enterobacteriacea by Violet Red Bile Glucose (VRBG) were evaluated. Medium Baird-Parker agar (BP) medium and Tryptone Bile X-Gluc (TBX) medium were used for the isolation and enumeration of Staphylococcus aurous and E. coli spp. respectively. Furthermore, Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate agar medium (XLD) and Bismuth Sulfite Agar medium (BSA) were used for detection of Salmonella spp. Fungal and mold contamination was assessed using yeast extract glucose chloramphenicol agar. The results showed that the contamination of the samples with total count (100%) and Enterobacteriaceae (85%), total coliform (83%), mold and yeast (98%) and E. coli ssp. (2.27) were detected, including in the study samples the absence of pathogenic bacteria like Staphylococcus aurous , Salmonella spp. Moreover, the extract had a lower microbial load in comparison to dry herb samples. Also, the lowest and the highest of contamination rates were observed for Indian valerian and zataria, respectively. According to the results, there is a need to control the environmental conditions and improve hygiene in the production process; even more, it is recommended to choose a suitable decontamination method for disinfection during packing medicinal plants and during post-packing manipulation and transport.

In this research the effect of sawdust, malt extract, and wheat bran on yield, biological efficiency (BE), and mycelia growth of Ganoderma lucidum was investigated. Three kinds of sawdust (beech, poplar, and hornbeam) as basal medium were mixed with two levels of wheat bran (5% and 10% w/w) and malt extract (2.5% and 5% w/w) as medium supplement for production of G. lucidum in factorial experiments on the basis of completely randomized design with three replications. The results showed that various kinds of sawdust affect fruiting body yield, BE, and mycelia growth rate significantly. The highest fruiting body yield and BE (102.58 g/kg and 12.89%, respectively) were found using hornbeam sawdust. The beech sawdust promotes the mycelia growth rate more than other sawdust. Analysis of variance showed that there is a significant interaction between the sawdust type and wheat bran, sawdust type and malt extract, and wheat bran and malt extract as far as yield and BE of G. lucidum was concerned. A final comparison of the different formulae indicated that the best combinations for high yield (142.44 g/kg) and BE (18.68%) were obtained in a combination of poplar sawdust with 5% malt extract and 10% wheat bran. The highest mycelia growth rate (10.6 mm/day) was obtained in a combination of beech sawdust with 2.5% malt extract and 10% wheat bran.

This research is part of an ongoing selection and breeding effort to target Iranian genotypes of Hypericum perforatum with the potential to produce higher amounts of desired secondary metabolites and greater resistance to fungal pathogens. There is a significant interest in the development of such cultivars to supply materials to the local pharmaceutical industries. For this reason, two improved cultivars of H. perforatum ('Gold' and 'Veperikon') were compared with a wild Iranian population (Ardabile population) under common garden conditions in Iran. Plants were cultivated from seed in a greenhouse and seedlings were transplanted after one month to the field plots. The statistical design of this study was a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. During the period of full flowering, selected phenological (number of days to flowering), morphological (plant height, mean leaf area, number of black glands/leaf) and chemical (hypericin and pseudohypericin content) characteristics were assessed. Our observations were that the 'Veperikon' cultivar is very sensitive to soil-borne diseases. All transplanted seedlings were infected by the plant pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which caused necrosis of the whole plant. Both the 'Gold' cultivar and plants from the wild population persisted despite mild infections with C. gloeosporioides and produced flowering shoots at both the first and second years after cultivation. The 'Gold' cultivar was superior to the Ardabile population in terms of phenological and morphological characteristics. The average naphthodianthrone content (% dry weight of tissue) for the wild Iranian population was 0.04(±0.01)%, but for the 'Gold' cultivar, 0.33(+/-0.43)%. These data indicate that selection and directed cultivation of Iranian H. perforatum plants can result in plants with improved morphological, phenological and chemical characteristics.