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Pollination services are critical in entomophilous crops. Relationships between pollinator visits and fruit set and mass are complex and optimal strategies to improve pollination are poorly defined. We often do not understand what proportions of the crop result from self- or cross-pollination, how cross-pollination affects crop quality and how far cross-pollen is transported. We quantified proportions of self- and cross-paternity in nuts of the partially self-incompatible macadamia cultivar 816 at increasing distances from cross-pollen sources. We estimated the distance of effective pollen movement, evaluated how pollination by different parents affected nut size and nutritional quality, and assessed whether distance from a cross-pollen source determined proportions of cross-pollinated nuts, nut size and number of nuts harvested. Almost all nuts resulted from cross-pollination, even at 184 m (23 rows) from a cross-pollen source. The cross-pollen cultivars in closest proximity were usually the pollen parents. Cross-pollination increased nut size and altered kernel nutritional quality. The number of harvested nuts decreased with increasing distance from a cross-pollen source in one orchard. Nut size was generally not affected by distance from a cross-pollen source. Synthesis and applications. Macadamia nut production resulted almost entirely from cross-pollination. Crop production was dependent on across-orchard transport of cross pollen, sometimes over at least 184 m. This shows the importance of pollen genotype, not just pollen quantity, in ensuring an effective pollination service. The number of harvested nuts decreased at 24 m from a cross-pollen source, suggesting that different cultivars should be inter-planted more closely in macadamia orchards. We need to better understand pollinator behaviour, including what genotype of pollen the different flower visitors carry, and how far and in what direction they transport pollen across orchards, to optimise crop yield and quality.

Pestalotiopsis blight and leaf spot in macadamia are caused by species of Pestalotiopsis and Neopestalotiopsis. Conidia produced by these pathogens are mostly dispersed by wind and rain splash and are the primary infecting propagules. Rapid detection and quantification of airborne conidia are essential to determine the seasonal dynamics of inoculum and critical infection periods in macadamia orchards. A quantitative PCR (qPCR) using a new primer pair and a hydrolysis probe was developed to detect and quantify airborne conidia of Pestalotiopsis and Neopestalotiopsis species. The amplification efficiency of the qPCR was 96.4% and the assay had a limit of detection of 400 fg of Pestalotiopsis/Neopestalotiopsis gDNA, which corresponds to approximately 10 conidia. The qPCR assay coupled with spore trapping was used to monitor airborne conidia dispersal under field conditions. The results showed that the assay is specific and sensitive for detecting and quantifying Pestalotiopsis/Neopestalotiopsis conidia in macadamia orchards. The detection and quantification of the pathogen inoculum will improve our understanding of disease epidemiology and the ability to manage these diseases in macadamia.

Firstly, we show that dead leaf retention occurs in three Cape Protea species and that it is not correlated with a prolonged live leaf retention. Protea amplexicaulis retains dead leaves for up to six years and was used as a focal species. Two hypotheses for the adaptive significance of dead leaf retention in Proteaceae have been previously suggested: that dead leaves increase flammability thus providing open space for seedling establishment by burning neighbouring plants (Flammability hypothesis); and that the retention of dead leaves results in an increase in post-fire nutrients thus providing fertilisation for seedlings (Selfish fertilisation hypothesis). Dead leaves were found to contain significant amounts of calcium but negligible amounts of any other limiting nutrients and below canopy seedlings were neither more numerous nor larger than those in the open. We thus reject the selfish-fertilization hypothesis. We reject the flammability hypothesis as both P. amplexicaulis and its most common near neighbours are fire sensitive reseeders and in any case seeds are likely to disperse outside of the area affected by increased parental flammability.

Australian macadamia production is threatened by a disorder known as abnormal vertical growth (AVG), for which the etiology is unknown. AVG is characterized by vigorous upright growth and reduced lateral branching, flowering, and nut set that results in over 70% yield loss annually. Six commercial macadamia orchards were surveyed in 2012 and again in 2018 to examine spatiotemporal dynamics of the epidemic. Data were subjected to point-pattern and geostatistical analyses. AVG incidence in all orchards showed a better fit to the beta-binomial distribution than the binomial distribution. AVG incidence in the different orchards varied between 5 and 47% in 2012, and 13 and 55% in 2018 and the rate of spread was slow, averaging at about 2% increase in disease incidence per annum. Spatial patterns of AVG were highly aggregated on both survey years and spread was mainly between neighboring trees in a row or trees that were opposite to each other in different rows. Semivariograms showed large range values (approximately 15 to 120), indicating aggregation of AVG-affected trees beyond quadrat levels. Furthermore, clusters of disease were mainly at the edge of the orchard on the first survey date and the disease progressed toward the center of the orchard over time. It is concluded that AVG is caused by an infectious agent, and based on patterns of spread, we hypothesize that spread is facilitated by root grafting or root-to-root contact. Furthermore, a vascular-limited pathogen could be involved that modulates plant hormone production.

In Australia, Phytophthora cinnamomi is the only species reported as the causal agent of stem canker and root rot in macadamia. In other countries, five Phytophthora species have been reported to cause diseases in macadamia, which led us to question if more than one Phytophthora species is responsible for poor tree health in macadamia orchards in Australia. To investigate this, samples were collected from the rhizosphere, stem, and root tissues of trees with and without symptoms, nurseries, and water sources from 70 commercial macadamia orchards in Australia. Phytophthora isolates were identified based on morphological characteristics and DNA sequencing. P. cinnamomi was the most predominant and widely distributed species, and was obtained from the different types of samples including symptomless root tissues. In addition to P. cinnamomi, only P. multivora was isolated from diseased tissue (stem canker) samples. Six other Phytophthora species were obtained from the rhizosphere samples: P. pseudocryptogea, P. citrophthora, P. nicotianae, P. gondwanense, P. sojae, and a new Phytophthora taxon. Only P. cinnamomi was obtained from macadamia nursery samples, while five Phytophthora species were obtained from water sources. Of the heterothallic Phytophthora species, mating type A2 isolates were dominant in P. cinnamomi isolates, whereas only mating type A1 isolates were obtained for P. nicotianae, P. pseudocryptogea, and P. citrophthora. Pathogenicity assays revealed that P. cinnamomi and P. multivora caused significantly larger stem and leaf lesions than P. citrophthora, P. nicotianae, and P. pseudocryptogea. Phytophthora sp. and P. sojae were nonpathogenic towards leaves and stems.

Phomopsis husk rot (PHR) in macadamia is a disease of economic importance in major commercial production areas in Australia and South Africa. Effective control of PHR is hindered by limited knowledge about its aetiology and epidemiology. The diversity and pathogenicity of more than 50 isolates of Diaporthe associated with PHR in macadamia orchards in Australia and South Africa was assessed. Multilocus phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences of the ITS, tef1α, and tub2 gene loci revealed four novel clades that are described as Diaporthe australiana sp. nov., D. drenthii sp. nov., D. macadamiae sp. nov., and D. searlei sp. nov. Pathogenicity tests with representative isolates found that all four species caused PHR of varying severity between and within species, as well as between the two macadamia cultivars HAES 344 and HAES 816. The Australian species, D. australiana, was the most aggressive species compared with the three South African species. This study improves our understanding of the aetiology of PHR in macadamia and paves the way for more effective disease management.

Background and aims Australian Macadamia species are known for their edible nuts as well as their ability to take up high concentrations of manganese (Mn) into their leaves. However, little is known about the ecophysiology of Mn in species of Macadamia. Methods This study investigated (i) Mn accumulation in wild Macadamia using handheld X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) of herbarium collections, and (ii) Mn uptake in three out of four known Macadamia species (M. tetraphylla, M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia) in a pot experiment that delivered Mn treatments in both solid (as natural Mn-minerals mixed with quartz sand) and liquid form (as MnSO4 solution added to soil). Tissue samples were analysed for bulk elemental concentrations and for in vivo distribution of Mn and other elements using laboratory μXRF analysis. Key results The results revealed that wild M. ternifolia and M. integrifolia are strong Mn accumulators with up to 9600 μg Mn g−1 and 8500 μg Mn g-1, respectively, followed by M. jansenii (6400 μg Mn g-1) and M. tetraphylla (5100 μg Mn g-1). Under the controlled conditions, high Mn accumulation was demonstrated for M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla with greater than 7500 μg Mn g−1 in mature leaves in the highest Mn treatment level. Our results further showed that Mn was efficiently translocated from the roots to the shoots with translocation factor >1 in the studied species. The laboratory μXRF analysis revealed that Mn was absent from the vascular bundles and concentrated in the areas between veins. Conclusions All the four Macadamia species have high foliar Mn concentrations qualifying them as strong Mn accumulators in nature as determined by handheld XRF analysis of herbarium specimens. Under experimental conditions, M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla were confirmed to be strong Mn accumulators. Manganese was shown by laboratory μXRF analysis to be concentrated in the inter-veinal areas of the leaf lamina.

RESUMEN Se estudió la propagación por semillas y por estacas de Orites myrtoidea (“Radal enano”), un arbusto con potencial ornamental de la familia Proteaceae, nativo de Chile y Argentina. A partir de material recolectado en otoño en la cordillera de la comuna de Pinto, Región de Ñuble, se evaluó el efecto en la germinación de semillas de 4 niveles de estratificación húmeda a 10° C (0, 7, 14 y 21 días), más uno de ácido giberélico (250 ppm) como control positivo, y el porcentaje y grado de enraizamiento de estacas con 5 niveles de inmersión rápida en solución de Ácido Indol Butírico (AIB) (0, 1.000, 2.000, 3.000 y 4.000 ppm) y un nivel de AIB en formulación en polvo (1.500 ppm). Los mayores porcentajes de germinación se obtuvieron con estratificación por 21 días y con inmersión en ácido giberélico, 80 y 92%, respectivamente. En la propagación vegetativa el porcentaje de enraizamiento superó el 90% en todos los tratamientos, sin embargo, todas las estacas tratadas con AIB presentaron un enraizamiento moderado a abundante, superior al control, en el cual se obtuvo un enraizamiento escaso a moderado.

Background and Aims Pollen limitation is most prevalent among bee-pollinated plants, self-incompatible plants and tropical plants. However, we have very little understanding of the extent to which pollen limitation affects fruit set in mass-flowering trees despite tree crops accounting for at least 600 million tons of the 9200 million tons of annual global food production. Methods We determined the extent of pollen limitation in a bee-pollinated, partially self-incompatible, subtropical tree by hand cross-pollinating the majority of flowers on mass-flowering macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) trees that produce about 200 000–400 000 flowers. We measured tree yield and kernel quality and estimated final fruit set. We genotyped individual kernels by MassARRAY to determine levels of outcrossing in orchards and assess paternity effects on nut quality. Key Results Macadamia trees were pollen-limited. Supplementary cross-pollination increased nut-in-shell yield, kernel yield and fruit set by as much as 97, 109 and 92 %, respectively. The extent of pollen limitation depended upon the proximity of experimental trees to trees of another cultivar because macadamia trees were highly outcrossing. Between 84 and 100 % of fruit arose from cross-pollination, even at 200 m (25 rows) from orchard blocks of another cultivar. Large variations in nut-in-shell mass, kernel mass, kernel recovery and kernel oil concentration were related to differences in fruit paternity, including between self-pollinated and cross-pollinated fruit, thus demonstrating pollen-parent effects on fruit quality (i.e. xenia). Conclusions This study is the first to demonstrate pollen limitation in a mass-flowering tree. Improved pollination led to increased kernel yield of 0.31–0.59 tons ha–1, which equates currently to higher farm-gate income of approximately $US3720–$US7080 ha–1. The heavy reliance of macadamia flowers on cross-pollination and the strong xenia effects on kernel mass demonstrate the high value that pollination services can provide to food production.

The factors that influence seed production and seed dormancy in rare plant species are crucial to their conservation yet are often poorly understood. In this study, we examined the breeding system and seed biology of the critically endangered Australian endemic species Persoonia pauciflora through a series of experiments. Pollinator visitation surveys and manipulative hand-pollination treatments were conducted to investigate the breeding system and subsequent seed production. We used an experimental seed burial to examine the breakdown of the woody endocarp and changes to germination over time. Seed germination response under simulated local seasonal conditions was also examined. Persoonia pauciflora was found to be predominantly pollinated by native bees, and cross-pollinated flowers produced significantly more mature fruit (18 ± 3%) than self-pollination treatments (2–3%). The average strength of P. pauciflora pyrenes buried in soil significantly decreased over two years, from 413.3 ± 14.6 N to 130.8 ± 11.8 N. Post-burial seed germination was cyclical, with highest final germination percentage occurring following late-summer exhumations (75 ± 2% and 74 ± 14%, respectively). When seeds were incubated under different local seasonal conditions, germination at local summer temperatures was more likely when compared with autumn/spring and winter temperature-incubated seeds. Our study highlights the importance of ensuring appropriate biotic pollen vectors are present in the local landscape for maximising viable fruit production for this species. In addition, our data indicate that recruitment will most likely occur after the endocarp has suitably weakened, allowing physiological dormancy of the embryo to be relaxed and germination to commence following summer temperatures.

The subterranean termite Heterotermes indicola (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) is a serious pest to wood in service causing significant annual economic loss in Southeast Asia. In the present study, silver oak (Grevillea robusta A. Cunn.) (Proteaceae) leaf extract was investigated for its termiticidal properties against the termite H. indicola in laboratory tests. An ethanol-solvent system was used to remove the extract from dry leaf powder via Soxhlet apparatus. A dose-dependent foraging response and mortality was observed after continuous exposure to a dose range of 1–20 mg/mL of extract based on dry extract weight. Results indicated that maximum (>90%) termite mortality occurred at 20 mg/mL along with a significant reduction in termite tunneling activity. An LC50 was calculated at 5.47 mg/mL using the concentration series data. In filter paper antifeeding and repellency bioassays, a significant reduction in the total population of gut protozoa compared to untreated and negative controls (solvent) was observed. After 2 weeks of no-choice continuous feeding on filter paper treated at 20 mg/mL, hindgut protozoan population was reduced by 62.90%. The extract conveyed resistance to the non-durable cotton wood and chir pine after vacuum pressure treatment. At the highest concentration tested, 100% mortality was recorded after exposing termites to cotton wood and chir pine treated with silver oak leaf extract. HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS results of the extract showed high level of phenolic compound, alkyl-resorcinol. Results indicated that silver oak leaf extract has termiticidal properties and could be of value in the development of botanical insecticides for termite control in wood products.

Macadamia fruit with insect damage (n 5 1614) were sampled at five farms in Guatemala during 2017. Infested fruit yielded 220 adult moths: 57.27% Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), 41.36% Catarata sp. (Lepidoptera: Depressariidae), and 1.36% Deoclona sp. (Lepidoptera: Autostichidae). These are the first records of these lepidopteran species from macadamia in Guatemala. Percentages of macadamia fruits damaged by lepidopteran fruit borers at the three farms with the highest rates of infestation were 15.92%, 13.70%, and 13.41%, comparable to infestation rates reported from Costa Rica.

Macadamia nuts, the seeds of Macadamia tetraphylla or Macadamia integrifolia of family Proteaceae, are a familiar food item. Previous case reports of macadamia nut allergy demonstrated the possibility of false negative IgE antibody test results and cross-reactivity of macadamia nut with hazelnut.1-5 However, the clinical features of childhood macadamia nut allergy and the cross-reactivity of macadamia nut with foods other than hazelnut remain understudied.

Phosphorus (P) deficiency induces cluster-root formation and carboxylate exudation in most Proteaceae. However, how external P supply regulates these root traits in Macadamia integrifolia remains unclear. Macadamia plants were grown hydroponically with seven P levels to characterize biomass allocation, cluster-root development, and exudation of carboxylates and acid phosphatases. Plant biomass increased with increasing P supply, peaking at 5 μM P, was the same at 5–25 μM P, and declined at 50–100 μM P. Leaf P concentration increased with increasing P supply, but shoot biomass was positively correlated with leaf P concentration up to 0.7–0.8 mg P g–1 dry weight (DW), and declined with further increasing leaf P concentration. The number of cluster roots declined with increasing P supply, with a critical value of leaf P concentration at 0.7–0.8 mg P g–1 DW. We found a similar trend for carboxylate release, with a critical value of leaf P concentration at 0.5 mg g–1 DW, but the activity of acid phosphatases showed a gradually-decreasing trend with increasing P supply. Our results suggest that leaf P concentration regulates the development and functioning of cluster roots, with a critical P concentration of 0.5–0.8 mg g–1, above which macadamia growth is inhibited.

Rhizoremediation potential of different wild plant species for total (aliphatic) petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH)-contaminated soils was investigated. Three-week-old seedlings of Acacia inaequilatera, Acacia pyrifolia, Acacia stellaticeps, Banksia seminuda, Chloris truncata, Hakea prostrata, Hardenbergia violacea, and Triodia wiseana were transplanted in a soil contaminated with diesel and engine oil as TPH at pollution levels of 4,370 (TPH1) and 7,500 (TPH2) mg kg−1, and an uncontaminated control (TPH0). After 150 days, the presence of TPH negatively affected the plant growth, but the growth inhibition effect varied between the plant species. Plant growth and associated root biomass influenced the activity of rhizo-microbiome. The presence of B. seminuda, C. truncata, and H. prostrata significantly increased the TPH removal rate (up to 30% compared to the unplanted treatment) due to the stimulation of rhizosphere microorganisms. No significant difference was observed between TPH1 and TPH2 regarding the plant tolerance and rhizoremediation potentials of the three plant species. The presence of TPH stimulated cluster root formation in B. seminuda and H. prostrata which was associated with enhanced TPH remediation of these two members of Proteaceae family. These results indicated that B. seminuda, C. truncata, and H. prostrata wild plant species could be suitable candidates for the rhizoremediation of TPH-contaminated soil. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Abnormal vertical growth (AVG) syndrome, which has an unknown aetiology, is a serious threat to the Australian macadamia industry. AVG is characterized by vigorous upright growth and reduced flowering and nut set that results in over 70% yield loss. However, there is a deficiency in knowledge about the distribution of AVG. In this study, we used spatial analysis to provide insights into the distribution and spread of AVG in commercial macadamia orchards in Australia. Using binary data of AVG occurrence from large-scale surveys of six affected commercial orchards in Queensland (five orchards) and New South Wales (one orchard) in 2012 and 2018, spatio-temporal dynamics of AVG was evaluated. Data were subjected to point-pattern and geostatistical analyses using the R package EPIPHY. The Fisher’s index of dispersion of all orchards showed aggregated patterns of affected trees in both years, with statistical significance (p < 0.01) of chi-square test. Goodness-of-fit comparisons of incidence data of all orchards with β-binomial distributions showed that AVG incidence increased by 64% over the six-year period. AVG distribution and the β-binomial parameters exhibited strong heterogeneity, which indicates high degree of aggregation and increasing spread of AVG over time. In addition, binary power law and spatial hierarchy tests confirmed the patterns of aggregation in all orchards. These results implicate a biotic agent as the cause of AVG.

In order to assess the influence of climatic factors on abundance of conidia of dry flower pathogens, Pestalotiopsis macadamiae and Neopestalotiopsis macadamiae, a Burkard spore trap was used to determine daily aerial conidia concentration at Alstonville (28.852° S, 153.456° E), New South Wales, Australia. Weather data including minimum and maximum air temperatures, rainfall, wind speed and relative humidity were obtained from an automated weather station at the same location. The effect of each, and the combined climatic parameters on conidia abundance was analysed using the GLM procedure for the all-subset regression link functions. A model containing weekly maximum temperature and weekly rainfall produced the best significant effect on conidia abundance (R2 = 72.7%, P = 0.003) compared with the model containing daily data of both climatic parameters (R2 = 35.4%, P = 0.000). In vitro assays were established to examine the effect of different temperatures (12, 19, 22, 25, 29, 33, 37 and 41 °C) on growth and reproduction of the pathogens. The results showed that maximal mycelial growth, conidia production and germination occurred at 25 °C and declined significantly (P < 0.05) at cooler and warmer temperatures. Temperatures above 40 °C were lethal for growth and functioning of the pathogens. The results confirmed that air temperature significantly influenced growth and reproduction of both dry flower pathogens. These findings will underpin development of a disease prediction model for dry flower in macadamia.

Protea leafminer, Phyllocnistis sp., has been reported in South Africa since at least the 1990's. In Portugal, infestations were first reported on Southwest coastal farms in 2008. In this region, this pest can damage up to about 80% of flower production in several Protea cultivars, if control measures are not applied. Depending on whether the damaged leaves can be removed from cut flower stems and on the severity of the infestation, leafminer damage may make a significant impact or have little economic importance. Control of this pest has been achieved through the spraying of insecticides in combination with a mineral summer oil. At the farm level, decision-making for the need of control measures is based on observed incidence of attacks on plants, except in the case of very susceptible cultivars. In the last case, plants are sprayed as a precaution whenever they are in the susceptible phenological phase. In order to develop a friendly to use system to monitor Protea leafminer, sexual pheromone white delta traps baited with Phyllocnistis citrella pheromone were evaluated. Some of the trapped insects were sampled to conduct genitalia observations to check if they were P. citrella. In addition, 50 flowering stems of each studied cultivar (ʹBrendaʹ, ʹCandidaʹ, ʹGrandicolorʹ, ʹLiebencherryʹ, ʹPink Iceʹ, ʹRupy Whiteʹ, ʹSheilaʹ and ʹWhite Nightʹ) were inspected weekly for mines, containing either live or dead larvae. Very few adults of the genus Phyllocnistis (but no P. citrella) were caught in traps, so this pheromone is not considered suitable for monitoring purposes. The phenological stage “new growth” was moderately, but significantly correlated with the proportion of plants with larvae inside mines. Presence of new growth on branches explained more than 60% of the attack Protea leafminer.

Plants with thick bark at the time of fire are able to maintain some above-ground structure after fire, rather than having to recruit from seed. Despite this advantage, thick-barked plants are rare globally including in fire-prone Cape fynbos shrublands and they are globally restricted to only some fire habitats. Plants can attain thick bark by either having high relative bark thickness or by having high bark thickness growth rates. There is considerable information on relative bark thickness but almost none on bark thickness growth rates. Cape fynbos Proteaceae produce annual growth scars that allow the age of stems to be determined. Using data for three thick-barked and four co-occurring thin-barked species, I report the first information that indicates that relative bark thickness is positively correlated with bark thickness growth rates. Maximum bark thickness growth rates are close to 1 mm yr−1 which is almost double that of savanna plants. However, this growth rate appears to be insufficient to protect stems in fires because the few thick-barked species all grow in rocky relatively low-fire intensity environments. Lack of thick-barked species in the Cape is therefore due to bark thickness growth rates being insufficient to protect aerial stems in local fires.

The irrigation and fertilization regime of different varieties of Grevillea in Israel are based on existing knowledge for growing various varieties of the Proteaceae family for production of cut flowering branches. However, growers face problems in cultivating Grevillea “Spiderman,” such as leaf chlorosis, prolonged growth until flowering, and reduced quality of cut flowering branches. The present study aimed to examine whether these problems stem from deficiency or excess of Fe, Mn, Zn, P, and Mg, focusing on the effect of these nutrients on growth, flowering, and appearance of visual leaf symptoms and on yield, quality, and vase life longevity of cut flowering branches. The nutrient treatments significantly affected plant development and flowering. Increasing the Fe concentration from 1 to 2 or 3 mg l –1 resulted in improved leaf color, from slightly yellow to dark green. The combination of 2 mg l –1 Fe + 1.8 mg l –1 Mn resulted in early flowering, highest yield, and development of long lateral branches. Low levels of P caused in the first year of treatment leaf chlorosis, which was intensified during the third year, resulting in severe yellowing of the flowering branches. Leaf necrosis and tip burn appeared in treatments with high concentrations of Zn, Mn, and Mg. Deficiency of Fe and Mn and high concentration of P and Mg led to the development of a large number of branches without flowers. The optimal fertilization treatment that yielded the highest quality of flowering branches after harvest was 2 mg l –1 Fe. Branches of this treatment had green foliage at harvest and the longest vase life (10 days) following the recommended postharvest treatment and air transport simulation. Based on the findings of the present research, it can be concluded that the problems in the cultivation of G . “Spiderman,” such as leaf chlorosis, delayed flowering, and reduced quality of flowering branches, result from improper fertilization.

Hakea prostrata R.Br. (Proteaceae) shows a ‘delayed greening’ strategy of leaf development characterised by reddish young leaves that become green as they mature. This trait may contribute to efficient use of phosphorus (P) during leaf development by first investing P in the development of leaf structure followed by maturation of the photosynthetic machinery. In this study, we investigated the properties of delayed greening in a highly P-efficient species to enhance our understanding of the ecological significance of this trait as a nutrient-saving and photoprotective strategy. In glasshouse-grown plants, we assessed foliar pigments, fatty acids and nutrient composition across five leaf developmental stages. Young leaves had higher concentrations of anthocyanin, P, nitrogen (N), copper (Cu), xanthophyll-cycle pigments and saturated fatty acids than mature leaves. As leaves developed, the concentration of anthocyanins decreased, whereas that of chlorophyll and the double bond index of fatty acids increased. In mature leaves, ~60% of the fatty acids was α-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3). Mature leaves also had higher concentrations of aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca) and manganese (Mn) than young leaves. We conclude that delayed greening in H. prostrata is a strategy that saves P as well as N and Cu through sequential allocation of these resources, first to cell production and structural development, and then to supplement chloroplast development. This strategy also protects young leaves against photodamage and oxidative stress during leaf expansion under high-light conditions.

Grevillea (Proteaceae) is one of the woody Australian native species that have a high commercial value in the floriculture market. Grevillea spp. varies greatly in their ease of propagation from cuttings, and some Grevillea cultivars are considered to be difficult-to- root. Efforts to improve propagation success are essential if this species is to be developed for commercial production. The objectives of this study were to observe the response of Grevillea cuttings to exogenous auxin, and to determine whether or not rooting differences between the difficult and easy-to-root cultivars could be explained by differences in endogenous auxin levels, auxin uptake, transport and/or metabolism.GC-MS analysis was used to measure the levels of auxin in the plants. The level of auxin in the endogenous pool was measured by adding 13C-labelled IAA (I3C6-IAA) and 13C1- labelled IBA (13C1-IBA) as internal standards for quantitative mass-spectral analysis. The capacity for auxin transport in cuttings of the two Grevillea cultivars was estimated by applying radio labelled auxin with high specific activity (3H-IBA, Bioscientific Pty) to the cuttings. The distribution of radioactivity was determined in the cutting base, leaves and the rest of the stem harvested at various time points. Confirmation of the quantity of radiolabel maintained as [3H]-IBA during this period was monitored by HPLC-radio detection.Apical auxin application to the difficult-to-root cultivar "Coastal Dawn" resulted in a higher or comparable percentage of rooting compared to basal application in autumn and might potentially reduce the amount of auxin required to induce rooting.Rooting differences between the difficult and easy-to-root Grevillea cultivars are unlikely to be related to their endogenous auxin levels or their ability to uptake applied auxin. This conclusion was based on the findings that (1) there were no significant differences in the endogenous IAA and IBA levels between the easy and difficult-to-root cultivars and (2) both cultivars demonstrated an increase in endogenous IAA and IBA levels following IBA application; the increase in the difficult-to-root "Coastal Dawn" being more pronounced than in the easy-to-root "Royal Mantle".A different distribution pattern of the applied [3H]-IBA was noted between "Coastal Dawn" and "Royal Mantle". The applied IBA in "Coastal Dawn" moved to the leaf rather than the stem base, whereas in "Royal Mantle" it accumulated in the stem base.Both Greviilea cultivars demonstrated the ability to convert the IBA to IAA. However, the rate of IBA metabolism appears to vary between cultivars and between tissues within the same cultivar. Between cultivars, the stem base of "Royal Mantle" cuttings metabolised IBA more than "Coastal Dawn". Since roots formed in the tissues which showed more IBA metabolism, i.e. in the stem base of "Royal Mantle" and in the upper stem of "Coastal Dawn", it is possible that root formation in Grevillea correlates with the cultivar's ability to metabolise IBA. These findings led to the conclusion that auxin distribution and metabolism might contribute to the different rooting abilities of Grevillea cultivars.

Los cultivadores colombianos de flores tradicionales están confrontados con problemas, tanto económicos como sociales, por lo que están buscando alternativas, que incluyen a las Proteas, ornamentales que requieren investigación, que asegura un manejo técnico. Una de las Proteas con más posibilidad de estar involucrado en este desarrollo es el género Leucadendron. El diseño experimental empleado fue un diseño de parcelas, divididas con arreglo factorial. Así, que el objetivo de este estudio fue establecer la base para el enraizamiento de las estacas. En combinación con dos auxinas, ácido 1-naftalenacético (ANA) y ácido indolbutírico (AIB), tres dosis de cada una y el control comercial, se evaluaron cuatro sustratos. Cada tratamiento, se repitió tres veces y cada unidad experimental consistió en 30 estacas, para la primera localidad y de 25, para la segunda. Los resultados más relevantes mostraron que el mejor sustrato para el enraizamiento de estacas de Leucadendron fue la vermiculita, en ambas localidades. También, se identificó que AIB es el regulador de crecimiento que mejoró el porcentaje de enraizamiento, el volumen de raíces, la longitud del tallo disminuyó el porcentaje de pérdidas. Colombian flower growers are faced with economic and social problems, so they are looking for alternatives, which include Proteas, ornamentals that require research that en-sures an appropriate, local technical management. One of the Proteas most likely to be involved in this search is the ge-nus Leucadendron. Therefore, this study aimed to establish the best basis for rooting its cuttings. The experimental de-sign was a split plot design with a factorial arrangement. Four substrates were evaluated in combination with two auxins, naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and indolebutiric acid (IBA), three doses each, plus a commercial control. Each treatment was repeated three times and the experimental unit consisted of 30 stakes at the first locality and 25 at the second one. The most relevant results showed that vermiculite was the best substrate for rooting cuttings of Leucadendron at both local-ities. Also, it was identified that IBA is the growth regulator which improved the rooting percentage, the root volume, the stem decreased the percentage of losses. Incluye referencias bibliográficas

Phytophthora cinnamomi is a major pathogen of cultivated macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia, Macadamia tetraphylla and their hybrids) worldwide. The susceptibility of the two non-edible Macadamia species (Macadamia ternifolia and Macadamia jansenii) to P. cinnamomi is not well-understood. Commercial macadamia trees are established on grafted seedling (seed propagation) or own-rooted cutting (vegetative propagation) rootstocks of hybrids of the cultivated species. There is little information to support the preferential use of rootstock propagated by either seedling or own-rooted cutting methods in macadamia. In this study we assessed roots of macadamia plants of the four species and their hybrids, derived from the two methods of propagation, for their susceptibility to P. cinnamomi infection. The roots of inoculated plant from which P. cinnamomi was recovered showed blackening symptoms. The non-cultivated species, M. ternifolia and M. jansenii and their hybrids were the most susceptible germplasm compared with M. tetraphylla and M. integrifolia. Of these two species, M. tetraphylla was less susceptible than M. integrifolia. Significant differences were observed among the accessions of their hybrids. A strong association (R2 > 0.75) was recorded between symptomatic roots and disease severity. Root density reduced with increasing disease severity rating in both own-rooted cuttings (R2 = 0.65) and germinated seedlings (R2 = 0.55). P. cinnamomi severity data were not significantly (P > 0.05) different between the two methods of plant propagation. The significance of this study to macadamia breeding and selection of disease resistant rootstocks is discussed.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is a major pathogen in most macadamia plantations worldwide. Due to stem lesions, stem cankers and leaf defoliation it results in loss of productivity and tree death. In this study we examined accessions of the four Macadamia species and their hybrids, produced via rooted stem cuttings or germinated seeds, for susceptibility to stem canker and necrotic lesion caused by P. cinnamomi. Plants were wound-inoculated with agar containing P. cinnamomi. The symptoms produced in inoculated plants were used to characterize host susceptibility variation within and among the population. Lesion lengths and severity of stem canker were recorded. The four species and hybrids differed significantly in stem canker severity (P < 0.001) and lesion length (P = 0.04). M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla hybrids were the most susceptible. M. integrifolia had the greatest stem canker severity and the most extensive lesions above and below the site of inoculation. Restricted lesion sizes were observed in M. ternifolia and M. jansenii. The effects of basal stem diameter and the method of propagation either from cuttings or seed were not significant. The genetic variation in the reactions of macadamia accessions to stem infection by P. cinnamomi is discussed.

Macadamia nuts are a valuable culinary resource, but yields can vary substantially between varieties, orchards and seasons. The nuts are harvested from commercial varieties derived from two endemic Australian tree species; Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche and Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson. While some aspects of crop management for this relatively new crop are well known and generally well applied—including variety selection, irrigation and pesticide application—progress towards increasing quantity and reliability of yield has proven elusive. Hand pollination studies indicate that inadequate cross pollination contributes to low nut set and thus low yield. Typically just 0.3% of flowers develop into harvestable nuts. Lack of nut development after flowering and early abscission are indicators of poor fertilisation of the ovule. Honey bees ( Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758) are routinely reported as the most common insect visitor to macadamia flowers, and are widely regarded as the most important agent for transferring pollen between flowers. Stingless bees, beetles, flies and birds also visit flowers and have been considered as pollinators. In this review, we aim to collate what is currently known about the pollination of macadamia varieties, assess the factors that may hinder effective pollination and subsequent yield, and identify opportunities to improve both pollination and yield in commercial macadamia orchards.

The increasing global appreciation of macadamia nuts (Macadamia integrifolia, Proteaceae) and plans for expanding their production require appropriate management to support pollination services, since macadamia orchards depend on pollinators to assure high nut yields. Brazil is the 8th largest producer of macadamia nuts globally; however, studies on the pollination services associated with Brazilian orchards are insufficient. In this study, a survey of pollinators associated with the experimentally-introduced macadamia in NE Brazil is presented. The pollination requirements of the orchard studied were experimentally evaluated. Macadamia yields mainly benefited from the pollination service provided by butterflies rather than bees; butterflies were responsible for more than 50% of floral visits. These pollinators aided in ensuring fruiting success of inflorescences in the same magnitude as hand cross-pollination. Cross-pollination also increased final fruit set, but not kernel weight. Therefore, the studied macadamia orchard requires pollination services to optimize the production under local abiotic conditions, and butterflies are its potential pollination agents. For now, the main recommendations to implement in macadamia orchards in the region consists of conserving forest fragments to support pollinating butterflies, and including different cultivars, since outcrossing is required to ensure increased nut yields. Nevertheless, further investigation is needed to test the contributions of other pollinators, mainly stingless bees, to macadamia production supply in scenarios of large-scale crops.

An investigation of the previously unexamined ancient Tasmanian clone Lomatia tasmanica W. M. Curtis (Proteaceae) and two other endemic species Lomatia tinctoria R. Br. and Lomatia polymorpha (Labill.) R. Br. was undertaken. This represents the first extensive natural products study in which individual phytochemical components have been isolated and identified from these three Lomatia species. Extraction of L. tasmanica leaves provided the naphthoquinone juglone (0.34% w/w), and n-alkanes nonacosane and heptacosane (0.30% w/w combined). L. polymorpha afforded the flavonoid glycosides dihydroquercetin 3-O-β-D-xyloside (0.22% w/w) and quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucose (0.14% w/w), as well as the naphthalene glucoside 1,4,8-trihydroxynaphthalene-1-O-β-d-glucose (0.04% w/w) and 4-O-p-coumaroyl-d-glucose (0.03% w/w). In addition, both L. polymorpha and L. tinctoria contained juglone (0.32% w/w and 0.58% w/w, respectively). L. polymorpha provided tetracosan-1-ol, hexacosan-1-ol and octacosan-1-ol (0.07% w/w combined), while L. tinctoria gave nonacosane (0.13% w/w). Analysis of three individual specimens from each of the three species demonstrated consistency in the respective phytochemical profiles of these populations and tentatively suggests limited intraspecific variation.

Macadamia integrifolia Maiden and Betche (Proteaceae) is one of the major tree crops of the world. In addition to its nutritional value, macadamia also contains a number of phytochemicals that are responsible for a variety of bioactivities, among which hypocholesterolic activity which has been frequently studied. No previous studies were done on the Macadamia cultivated in Egypt, this encouraged the authors to perform the present study aiming to throw light on the nutritional profile of title plant. Proximate analysis of the leaves, pericarp and kernel Macadamia integrifolia Maiden and Betche includes the determination of moisture content, total ash, total protein, total fats, total carbohydrates and crude fibers, study of vitamin E content by using HPLC, determination of the mineral content according to Association of Official Analytical Chemists(A.A.O.C). Macadamia showed a total fat (5.085%) in leaves, (67.96%) in kernel and (0.34%) in pericarp. The protein constitute (6.65 %) in leaves, (20.81%) in kernel and (6.91%) in pericarp. Carbohydrate constitutes (72.35%) in leaves, (5.8%) in kernel and (77.58%) in pericarp. Moisture content ranged from (11.72%) in leaves, (2.83%) in kernel and (9,65%) in pericarp. Ash content was (4.2%) in leaves, (2.6%) in kernel and (5.52%) in pericarp. The content of vitamin E in macadamia tested parts was (133.18 mg/100gm) in leaves, (61.49 mg/100gm) in kernel and (98.78 mg/100gm) in pericarp. The mineral contents of macadamia tested parts were resulted Calcium (851.51 mg/100gm) in leaves, (181.64 mg/100gm) in kernel and (177.16 mg/100gm) in pericarp, Potassium (838.16 mg/100g) in leaves, (3458.14 mg/100gm) in kernel and (7803.68 mg/100gm) in pericarp, Sodium constitutes (309.36 mg/100g) in leaves, (69.67 mg/100gm) in kernel and (156.58 mg/100gm) in pericarp, Iron was (9.72 mg/100g) in leaves, (9.48 mg/100gm) in kernel and (9.75 mg/100gm) in pericarp and Copper resulted (0.76 mg/100g) in leaves, (0.634 mg/100gm) in kernel and (0.668 mg/100gm) in pericarp.

Countries or regions with a significant Proteaceae industry are approved by the International Protea Association (IPA) Council as ‘member countries’. In 2015, there are 15 recognised member countries of IPA, including Australia, the Azores, California, the Canary Islands, Chile, Hawaii, Israel, New Zealand, Portugal, South Africa and Zimbabwe. An important feature of IPA conferences is the country reports, compiled and presented by representatives of these member countries. Each report presents a snapshot of the Proteaceae industry in the country represented. These are very interesting in terms of both their similarities and their contrasts. This snapshot typically covers the history of each respective Proteaceae industry, its size (area of production and number of growers), location of production areas within the country, value of production, key export and domestic markets, key products, together with common, or unique threats and opportunities.

Rising temperatures associated with global climate change may alter the physiology and phenology of Protea species and cultivars. Protea species are assumed to be well adapted to warm summers characteristic of their natural Mediterranean-type habitat, but their plasticity in responding to higher growth temperatures is not known. Using infrared lamps, a greenhouse-based temperature gradient was constructed, with temperatures ranging from ambient to ambient + 3.1 °C. Potted plants of Protea ‘Pink Ice’ (P. compacta R. Br × P. susannae Phill.) were grown at five positions along this gradient for 12 months under irrigation. Simultaneously, a field verification experiment in a nearby commercial ‘Pink Ice’ orchard was conducted under ambient temperature and ambient + 2.9 °C. Increased sclerophylly (leaf dry weight per unit area) with increasing temperature indicated leaf structural changes. While leaf area based gas exchange (net CO2 assimilation rate, stomatal conductance and dark respiration rate) did not differ across the temperature gradient, leaf weight based CO2 assimilation rate and dark respiration rate decreased significantly towards the upper end of the temperature range. The optimum temperature for net CO2 assimilation rate (Topt) showed seasonal adjustments, but increased in response to experimental warming only in the field experiment. Significant temperature elevation resulted in an earlier onset of spring bud break, but warming extended inflorescence initiation from the spring flush to the summer flush, leading to delayed flowering. Aboveground biomass allocation shifted from inflorescences to leaves and to a lesser degree to stems, with elevated temperatures, whereas root growth was stimulated in the middle of the warming range. The results of this study suggest that elevated temperature may prolong the vegetative growth period in some Protea cultivars where water is not limiting, at the expense of flower production. This could have significant economic and marketing consequences for commercial cut flower production systems. The findings are also of significance to ecologists studying the responses of Proteaceae to climate change.

Despite high rates of root elongation during phreatophyte establishment, once connection to groundwater has occurred and leaf area develops, seedlings demonstrate limited capacity for root elongation in response to groundwater decline. In a water-limited environment, rapid root elongation immediately after germination can be critical for a plant to reach deeper water sources such as a water table to avoid water deficit stress. However, once plants have accessed a water table, their continued survival may depend on their ability to adapt their root distribution to changes in the depth to a water table. In glasshouse experiments using two Banksia species with contrasting water requirements, we investigated (1) the rate of root elongation by young seedlings in the presence of a shallow water table, and (2) whole plant response to rapid water table decline using older seedlings that had established root contact with a water table. The results of the first experiment agree with the hypothesis that the facultative phreatophyte, B. attenuata, has a faster rate of root elongation than the obligate phreatophyte, B. littoralis. These differences are likely related to the contrasting habitat preferences of the two species. Older seedlings in the second experiment demonstrated a water-saving response to a declining water table, rapidly closing stomata to limit water loss. Additionally, roots did not elongate to follow the water table and plants were quickly disconnected from the saturated zone. For the two phreatophytic Banksia species, the capacity for rapid root growth by young seedlings did not translate to an ability for established seedlings to adapt their root distribution to survive rapid water table decline.

Resumo O presente estudo apresenta o tratamento taxonômico de Proteaceae para as formações de canga da Serra dos Carajás (Pará, Brasil), onde foi registrada apenas uma espécie, Roupala montana, táxon de ampla variação morfológica e distribuição Neotropical. São apresentadas descrição detalhada, comentários e ilustração da espécie.

Macadamia integrifolia (Maiden and Betsche) and M. tetraphylla (L.A.S. Johnson)nfreely hybridise where their native Australian rainforest habitats coincide in northernnNew South Wales and southern Queensland. Macadamias (Proteaceae) are grownncommercially for their edible kernel. The current challenge is to identify highnyielding compatible pollen donor trees well suited to Australian conditions, tonenhance both productivity and quality in commercial macadamia orchards. Onenmeasure of inter-genotype compatibility is the comparison of fruit sets in response tonpollination using different pollen parents. A standardised pollination protocol wasnrequired to investigate both inter-genotype compatibilities between macadamiangenotypes, and the influences of pollen parents on fruit retention and fruit characters.nThese techniques involve a number of methodological assumptions which needed tonbe tested.The effect of the number of flowers pollinated on an inflorescence, the duration ofnpistil receptivity, and the relationship between Initial-Fruit-Set (IFS, the number ofnfruits retained two weeks post-pollination as a percentage of the number of flowersnpollinated) and mature fruit production have been investigated in Macadamia. Thesenresults show that the number of flowers pollinated, and the timing of pollinationninfluence both fruit set and the final number of fruit produced. The relationshipnbetween IFS and Final-Fruit-Set (FFS, proportion of fruits retained 32 weeks post-pollinationnas a proportion of the number of flowers pollinated) varied with thennumber of flowers pollinated per inflorescence, thus IFS cannot by itself be taken tonindicate successful fruit production. Therefore in order to use controlled pollinationsnto assess inter-genotype compatibility, standardisation of experimental pollinationntechniques and measures of reproductive success are required.Productivity of individual flowers was determined in three Macadamia genotypesnusing a 3 X 3 diallel and thinning racemes to leave 10, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 150nflowers, and using appropriate replication of racemes and trees. The pollinationneffects were investigated by measuring fruit set at fortnightly intervals from 2 until 16nweeks, and then at 4 weekly intervals until 34 weeks after pollination. As the numbernof flowers receiving cross and self-pollen were increased, IFS increased, howevernthese differences were not maintained after 12 weeks post-pollination. The effectivenpollination period of Macadamia pistils was investigated in 3 maternal genotypes,nusing a range of pollen sources including self. Replicate bagged racemes werenpollinated from anthesis at daily intervals until 14 days post anthesis. Receptivity wasnlow on the first two days post-anthesis, reached a maximum between days 3 and 7npost-anthesis and significantly declined thereafter. The effective pollination periodn(EPP) of pistils appeared to be genotype-specific, and varied with pollen sourcesntested. Fruit set occurred when pollinations were performed up to 12 days postanthesis,nafter the floral perianth had withered, discoloured and abscised. Abscissionnof emasculated, unpollinated flowers was genotype specific, but in all cases flowersnhad abscised by 13 days post-anthesis. The implications of these results for assessingninter-genotype compatibility within the Proteaceae are discussed.A 6 X 6 diallel cross was performed to determine the effect of pollen parent on fruitnretention, and mature nut characteristics between clonally propagated lines ofnmacadamia. Utilising an optimised pollination technique, this work demonstrated IFSnmeasured 14 days post-pollination, and FFS measured 32 weeks post-pollination,nvaried between 0.3 and 17.7%, and 0 and 2.2% of flowers pollinated respectively,nwhere parental combinations determined fruit abscission patterns. In 29 of 30 crossncombinations tested both IFS and FFS were greater than self-pollinated treatments.nAt FFS the only combination not responding to cross pollination, HV A4 X HV A16,nis known to have at least one shared parent. This result suggests cultivars selectednfrom the same breeding populations may exhibit reduced compatibility due to sharednalleles.Two peak periods of fruit abscission occurred, between anthesis and two weeks andnbetween four and seven weeks post-pollination. Small numbers of fruit werenobserved to abscise until 14 weeks post-pollination, when fruit set was equivalent to FFS. Fruit retention declined in a negative exponential relationship between IFS andnFFS, which varied depending on both maternal and paternal parent combinations.nPollen parent also had a significant influence on progeny weight, such that largernfruits were derived from those combinations producing the most fruit. Implicationsnfor natural and production systems will be discussed. n n

Six Hakea species varying greatly in seed size were selected for cotyledon damage experiments. The growth of seedlings with cotyledons partially or completely removed was monitored over 90 days. All seedlings perished by the fifth week when both cotyledons were removed irrespective of seed size. Partial removal of cotyledons caused a significant delay in the emergence of the first leaf, and reduction in root and shoot growth of the large-seeded species. The growth of seedlings of small-seeded species was less impacted by cotyledon damage. The rate of survival, root and shoot lengths and dry biomass of the seedlings were determined after 90 days. When seedlings were treated with balanced nutrient solutions following removal of the cotyledons, survival was 95–98%, but 0% when supplied with nutrient solutions lacking N or P or with water only. The addition of a balanced nutrient solution failed to restore complete growth of any species, but the rate of root elongation for the small-seeded species was maintained. Cotyledons provide nutrients to support early growth of Hakea seedlings, but other physiological roles for the cotyledons are also implicated. In conclusion, small-seeded Hakea species can tolerate cotyledons loss better than large-seeded species.

La especie Macadamia pertenece a la familia Proteacea , y las únicas especies de interés comercial son M. integrifolia y M. tetraphylla . Existe una cr eciente demanda de las nueces debido a su alto valor nutrimental y funcional ya que numerosos estudios han demostrado los efectos protectores de su consumo disminuyendo el riesgo de padecer enfermedades cardiovasculares. Sin embargo, hay una alta variabili dad en la calidad de la nuez y sus productos derivados. Método . En la nuez se registraron los parámetros de color L*, a* y b* y se analizó humedad, azúcares, polifenoles y actividad antioxidante. En el aceite se evaluó humedad, índice de saponificación, ín dice de ácidos grasos libres (AGL) e índice de peróxido (IP). Resultados . La humedad de la nuez contrastó entre variedades (22.9 a 40.6 g 100 g - 1 ), contrario a los parámetros de color que fueron similares (L*= 60.2 a 68.8). La variedad Victoria por su mayo r contenido de azúcares (57.5 mg glucosa g - 1 ) podría destinarse para consumo en fresco. UCLA y Huatusco presentaron el mayor contenido de polifenoles (>1.2 mg EAG g - 1 ) y actividad antioxidante (>7.0 μmol Eq. trolox g - 1 ). El aceite presentó baja hum edad (≤0.22%) y de AGL; además, el IP fue inferior al límite permitido para aceites vegetales vírgenes (15 m Eq. O 2 kg - 1 ). Conclusión . De acuerdo con las características físico - químicas de la nuez y aceite de las distintas variedades se recomienda usos di ferenciados preferentemente en la industria alimentaria.

The role of the International Protea Association (IPA) in promoting the growth and success of the international protea-producing industry is discussed by referring to each specific function. As a representative organisation the IPA serves to: connect and network across the industry; inform the members; promote Proteaceae floriculture products to markets and investigate and learn about all aspects of the protea industry. This paper reports on the nature and role of the IPA, and also provides the current status of international protea production, as summarized by area reports which were compiled and presented by representatives from international production areas, specifically: Australia (Bettina Gollnow), Azores (Antonio Domingues), California (Rua Petty), Canary Islands (Isidoro Rodriguez-Hernandez), Chile (Flavia Schiapacasse and Eduardo Olate), Ecuador (Carolina Alvarez), Hawaii (Tony Bayaoa and Pam Shingaki), New Zealand (Geoff Jewell) Portugal mainland (Paulo Monjardino), South Africa (Marius Huysamer and Lynn Hoffman) and Zimbabwe (Clive Wakefield). The sustainable growth and strength of the international protea industry is seen in the way opportunities for collaboration between participants across the globe are valued and nurtured.

Brazil recently began commercial cultivation of macadamia nuts, making it necessary to identify the insect pests attacking them in order to develop a pest management program. This study reports the occurrence of lepidopteran borers in macadamia fruits of orchards from the municipality of Jaboticabal, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Sampling was performed biweekly by visually searching for attacked fruits. The nuts collected had circular holes caused by lepidopteran larvae. The borers identified were Elaphria hypophaea (Hampson) (Noctuidae), Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (Lima) (Tortricidae), and Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) (Pyralidae), which occurred in the stages of fruit formation and growth, ripe fruits, and dropped fruits, respectively. This is the first record of E. hypophaea as a macadamia fruit borer worldwide, and the first record of G. aurantianum and E. ceratoniae as macadamia fruit borers in Brazil. Sumario O Brasil recentemente comecou a cultivar macadâmia comercialmente, e isso torna necessario identificar os insetos-praga que atacam as nozes de macadâmia, a fim de desenvolver um programa de controle de pragas. Este estudo relata a ocorrencia de brocas de lepidopteros em frutos de macadâmia de pomares do municipio de Jaboticabal, estado de Sao Paulo, Brasil. As amostragens foram realizadas quinzenalmente, procurando visualmente por frutos atacados. As castanhas coletadas tinham orificios circulares causados por lagartas. As especies de lepidopteros brocas identificados foram Elaphria hypophaea (Hampson) (Noctuidae), Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (Lima) (Tortricidae), e Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) (Pyralidae), que ocorreram nas fases de formacao e crescimento dos frutos, frutos maduros e frutos em queda, respectivamente. Este e o primeiro registro mundial de E. hypophaea como broca de macadâmia e o primeiro registro de G. aurantianum e E. ceratoniae como broca de macadâmia no Brasil. Key Words: Macadamia integrifolia; insect pest; lepidopteran larva; damage; Proteaceae View this article in BioOne

Despite the diversity of branching architectures in plants, the impact of this morphological variation on hydraulic efficiency has been poorly studied. Branch junctions are commonly thought to be points of high hydraulic resistance, but adjustments in leaf area or xylem conduit abundance or dimensions could compensate for the additional hydraulic resistance of nodal junctions at the level of the entire shoot. Here we used the sexually dimorphic genus Leucadendron (Proteaceae) to test whether variation in branch ramification impacts shoot hydraulic efficiency. We found that branch ramification was related to leaf traits via Corner’s rules such that more highly ramified shoots had smaller leaves, but that branch ramification had little consistent impact on shoot hydraulic efficiency, whether measured on a leaf area or stem cross-sectional area basis. These results suggest that the presumed increase in resistance associated with branching nodes can be compensated by other adjustments at the shoot level (e.g. leaf area adjustments, increased ramification to add additional branches in parallel rather than in series) that maintain hydraulic efficiency at the level of the entire shoot. Despite large morphological differences between males and females in the genus Leucadendron, which are due to differences in pollination and reproduction between the sexes, the physiological differences between males and females are minimal.