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Seaweeds are abundant and are an important renewable resource for the coastal community since they are rich sources of minerals and natural bioactive compounds. Among them, the Caulerpa species under green seaweeds is widely consumed by locals in Southeast Asia. Edible seaweeds are often associated with various health benefits. However, in Malaysia, limited studies have been done on the mineral and antioxidant levels of seaweeds, especially for the Caulerpa species. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the variations of minerals and antioxidants of selected Caulerpa species in Malaysia. The samples were collected in two study sites, which were Blue Lagoon, Port Dickson and Merambong Shoal, Johor. Two species, C. racemosa and C. manorensis were recorded from Merambong Shoal, Johor, while five species were recorded namely C. sertularioides, C. racemosa var lamourouxii, C. lentillifera, C. racemosa var cylindracea and C. racemosa at Blue Lagoon, Port Dickson. Among all the Caulerpa species from both study sites, C. manorensis possessed the highest phosphorus content (139.54 mg/100g) while C. racemosa from both Merambong and Blue Lagoon Port Dickson’s calcium (Ca) content was significantly highest at 2318.33 – 2406.66 mg/100g. All the Caulerpa species possessed high sodium (Na) content ranging 9338.30 – 21748.30 mg/100g. For micronutrients, the highest zinc content was recorded in C. manorensis (3.40 mg/100g) while the copper content was significantly highest in C. racemosa from Port Dickson (1.05 mg/100g). The methanol extract of C. sertularioides possessed phytochemical attributes of high antioxidant activity (DPPH EC50 = 24.16 mg/mL) with a high FRAP value being recorded in C. lentillifera (27.09 mg TE/100g). The TPC and TFC were highest in C. lentillifera with 57.95 mg GAE/100g and 1506.41 mg QE/100g respectively. The present study revealed that Caulerpa species contained constituents with significant mineral compositions and phytochemical attributes suitable for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical uses.

Enzymatic browning is a common limiting factor in the fruit industry because it causes significant losses through fresh product deterioration, affecting taste, flavor, and nutrition. Artocarpus odoratissimus, locally known as terap, is an exotic indigenous fruit to Borneo. This fruit remains underutilized due to its perishability, short shelf-life, and peel browning. Currently, no information has apparently been published on the browning mechanisms of A. odoratissimus. Thus, the present study aims to evaluate the degree of browning and enzymatic activities in relation to the phytochemical contents in A. odoratissimus during postharvest ripening. The experimental design consists of packaging (without packaging and with packaging) and storage temperatures (ambient at 25 °C, and cold storage at 10 °C), which were arranged in a randomized complete block design. Findings showed significantly higher weight loss in fruit stored at 25 °C on days 4 (T1) at 12.20 ± 0.19% and 8 (T5) at 11.09 ± 0.24%. The degree of browning was higher in the fruits stored with packaging at 25 °C, collected on day 4 at 0.48 ± 0.01 and day 8 at 0.51 ± 0.02, and consequently, the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (671.00 ± 5.25 UE g−1 min−1) and polyphenol oxidase (670.00 ± 2.56 UE g−1 min−1) enzymatic activities were also higher. The lower enzymatic activities were recorded in the fruit stored at 10 °C without packaging, resulting in the least degree of browning. The fruit with the lowest enzymatic activities was stored at 10 °C without packaging, resulting in the least amount of browning. This trend is supported by lower total phenolic content (TPC) and is explained by a strong positive correlation between TPC and PAL (r = 0.927). Low-temperature storage was effective in reducing the effect of browning and deterioration on A. odoratissimus for up to 16 days. The results not only provided insights into the peel browning in A. odoratissimus but also guidance on controlling postharvest fruit browning.

Currently, bee-gathered pollen (bee pollen) is commonly used worldwide as a dietary supplement and is recognized for its curative properties. Floral pollen is also important but is less recognized due to a lack of investigation. This study aims to determine the morphological characteristics and nutritional and phytochemical properties of floral maize pollen. Fresh pollen grains harvested from a farm of maize plants are yellow in colour and spheroid in shape. They change to amber and indented prismatic solid shapes when dehydrated. The main composition of floral maize pollen is carbohydrates (44.30±3.73%), followed by moisture (23.38±5.73%), crude proteins (17.16±3.13%), crude fibres (9.56±0.92%), and ash (4.98±0.11%), while the lowest content is observed for crude fats (0.62±0.06%). The predominant mineral is potassium (768.50±11.40 mg 100 g-1), followed by sodium (695.10±9.70 mg 100 g-1), calcium (147.20±12.60 mg 100 g-1), and magnesium (97.30±2.9 mg 100 g-1). The microelements (with average values) consist of iron (49.50±3.30 mg 100 g-1) and zinc (30.00±3.70 mg 100 g-1). Excellent phytochemical properties add value to floral maize pollen. Maize pollen contains a high total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of 783.02 mg GAE 100 g-1 and 1706.83 mg QE 100 g-1, respectively, and possesses strong antioxidant activity of 10.54 mg mL-1. Maize floral pollen and derived products can serve as future food resources for human consumption and as a source of functional and bioactive compounds in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries.

Passiflora quadrangularis L., also known as giant granadilla, belongs to the family Passifloraceae together with the well-known species Passiflora edulis Sims. This species has received attention from growers in recent years due to its aromatic flowers, unique and excellent fruit flavor and phytotherapeutic properties. Despite the numerous health benefits of this Passiflora species, information on their agronomical features and production is scarce. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the reproductive biology and fruit setting of P. quadrangularis cultivated in Sarawak, Malaysia. The findings revealed that the giant granadilla was a steady-state species that produced flowers lasting for only one day. Passiflora quadrangularis started to produce flowers 3 months after transplantation, followed by fruiting two months after anthesis. In East Malaysia, the flowers started blooming at dawn (0625±0.17 hours) followed by anthesis at 0806±0.23 hours and remained open until sunset. In contrast to P. edulis which flowered all year round, this species only exhibited two peaks, with a minor peak recorded from January-March and a major peak from September-December, coinciding with warm temperatures and moderate rainy season. Good fruit yields were recorded which was attributed to the ability for self-pollination due to autogamy and geitonogamy, in addition to the presence of effective pollinators. The yearly production of P. quadrangularis, produced relatively larger fruit with weights ranging from 884.4-2892.7 g, was 20,151.36 kg ha-1 (8993 fruits). Detailed information on the reproductive behavior of P. quadrangularis growing in local climates can be used for commercial cultivation and future breeding studies.

Passiflora species generally known as passion fruit may well be the most fascinating plant of the tropics. This plant is known to be self-incompatible in its native environment and it affects the fruit production. Extend of passion fruit set is highly dependent on effective pollinators such as carpenter bees and honey bees. However, in East Malaysia, there was good fruit sets, although lesser number of pollinators visiting the farm or sometimes absence. It is important therefore, to study the reproduction mechanisms of Passiflora plants, because this factor reflect the quantity of the fruit produced. The present studies aim therefore to evaluate the floral behaviours, reproductive mechanism and fruit production of locally grown Passiflora species. Based on the observations, Passiflora species was classified as “steadystate species” that exhibit constant production of few flowers, each day lasting only one day. All species have the ability to adapt to the local condition where plants continuously grew and produced flowers and fruits all the year around. The flowering and fruiting were not synchronized and showed a marked phenological pattern with species. Good fruit yields were observed throughout the year which was attributed to Passiflora species ability for self-pollination, involving the movement of styles to lead the stigma faced the anthers during flower blooming. This is an important phenomenon in order to reduce the distance between the stigma and anther, aid for pollination and provided reproductive assurance to the species. As P. edulis growing in its native environment is reported to be self-incompatible and have become selfcompatible in the present study; showed that evolution of these features is an important factor for its adaptability and survivability, thus crucial to P. edulis propagation optimally in local conditions.

This study was carried out to analyze the analytic chemical composition and minerals content of yellow velvetleaf (Limnocharis flava L. Buchenau) edible parts collected from waterways at Sebauh, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia in early July 2008 using standard method of food analysis. The edible parts of L. flava high in total carbohydrate by difference (14.56±0.14%) and gross calorific value (343.26±9.75 kJ/100 g), but low in moisture (79.34±0.15%), ash (0.79±0.03%) and crude protein content (0.28±0.01%) in dry weight basis. However, the crude fat (1.22±0.01%) and crude fiber content (3.81±0.04%) were within the range of Malaysian leafy vegetables. The high concentration of K (4202.50±292.37 mg/100 g), Ca (770.87±105.26 mg/100 g, Cu (8.31±1.83 mg/100 g), Mg (228.10±15.26 mg/100 g) and Zn (0.66±0.05 mg/100 g) were found in edible parts of L. flava. The concentration of Na (107.72±17.15 mg/100 g) was much higher when compared to the recommended dietary allowances. Thus, the edible parts of L. flava provide good sources of minerals such as potassium, calcium, magnesium and copper. However, nutritive value analyzed should not be the exclusive criteria for judging the consumptive significance of the edible parts. Besides, others factors such as palatability should also be taken into consideration.

A small-culture system for growing of Halophila ovalis was developed. Plugs of explants were successfuly grown in the native substrate and under the light regime of ~200 imol m-2 s-1. The culturing of H. ovalis in the laboratory permitted observations on (i) the sustain growth and the development of the population, (ii) the reproductive biology (flowering and fruiting) and (iii) the pattern of seedling development from seeds to mature plants. Plants increased in density via vegetative propagation and sexual reproduction. Plants produced male, female flowers and fruits. The presence of viable seeds and seedlings demonstrated the successful pollination and sexual reproduction of H. ovalis in culture. The morphology of progressive development of H. ovalis seedlings to juvenile or young plants for H. ovalis in culture is described.

Observation on flowering and fruiting of Halophila beccarii Aschers. were made at Kemaman, Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia from February 1996 through February 1997. The number of male and female flowers, fruits, seeds and seedlings was counted at monthly interval. Flowering and fruiting were detected almost continuously throughout the year except June when the first appearance of seedlings were observed. Flowering peaks occurred in February, September and January which coincided with dry season. Male flowers abundance in the respective months were 60.0 ± 15.3 m−2, 40.0 ± 13.1 m−2 and 50.0 ± 14.1 m−2 while female flowers abundance were 25.5 ± 8.7 m−2, 28.0 ± 8.6 m−2 and 52.0 ± 15.2 m−2. Fruiting was detected in synchrony with flowering but was not significantly related to the number of flowers. Fruit abundance were low in most months with higher density in February 1996 (21.8 ± 7.2 m−2), March 1996 (22.0 ± 8.2 m−2), April 1996 (10.0 ± 6.6 m−2), December 1996 (16.0 ± 6.0 m−2), January 1997 (12.0 ± 5.5 m−2) and February 1997 (18.8 ± 7.1 m−2). The calculated mean fruit density per square meter (from February 1996 to February 1997) was 11.0 ± 1.5 m−2. There are 1–4 seeds, with a mean of 1.7 seeds per fruit. H. beccarii from Kemaman is a monoecious perennial angiosperm which produces an estimated seed reserve of 156 m−2 year−1. Low abundance of seeds and seedlings were observed in the sampling plot. Seeds appear to be carried by tides from the sampling plot to the upper inter-tidal area among the mangrove, where they germinated into seedlings. The morphology and initial development of seedlings are similar as in Halophila spinulosa (R. Br.) Aschers., H. engelmannii Aschers., H. decipiens Ostenfeld, H. ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f. and H. tricostata Greenway. Flowering and fruiting was not correlated with total monthly rainfall, mean daily sunshine hours, mean daily global radiation, pH, salinity and water temperature but negatively correlated with mean air temperature, suggesting that fluctuations in male and female flowers and fruit densities was influenced by changes in temperature.

This study was performed to explore aquatic plants potential as raw materials to be used as alternative fibers in papermaking. Aquatic plants; Eleocharis dulcis, Limnocharis flava, Nymphaea nouchali, Blyxa aubertii and Cyperus malaccensis were collected from wetland areas and used as raw materials for handmade papermaking. Variables include; cell wall thickness, fiber diameter, lumen diameter and fiber length were examined and measured. Nymphaea nouchali possessed comparatively longer fiber length (0.571 mm), wider fiber diameter (48.17 μm) and lumen diameter (38.46 μm). Cyperus malaccensis has shorter fiber length (0.093 mm) and B. aubertii has narrower fiber diameter (16.1 μm) and cell wall thickness (3.77 μm). With respect to slenderness ratio (index to determine the strength of paper), B. aubertii possessed higher slenderness ratio of 16.4. All the species examined in this study have less than one Runkel ratio except for L. flava. Flexibility coefficient for the species evaluated ranged between 40.90–80.06%. Cyperus malaccensis, B. aubertii and N. nouchali have flexibility coefficient within standard range for papermaking suitability which were 53.8%, 61.78% and 80.06%, respectively. The slenderness ratio, Runkel ratio and flexibility coefficient characteristics contribute to tissue stability and have effect on the properties of handmade paper. Fiber distribution in produced paper sheets varied from random to uniform distribution. Limnocharis flava have higher shrinkage rate (11.43%) compared to other species whereas C. malaccensis possessed lowest shrinkage rate (3.93%).