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The optimal balance between sugar and acidity is an essential criterion to elaborate equilibrated and stable wines. The aim of this study was to locate quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for these traits using an F1 population derived from Monastrell and Syrah wine cultivars. Several parameters related to acidity were evaluated during six consecutive years by measuring total soluble solids, total acidity, malic acid, and tartaric acid. Three genetic maps were developed using 104 SSR (simple sequence repeat) and 146 SNP (single-nucleotide polymorphism) markers. The consensus map covered 1174 cM with 238 markers assembled in 19 linkage groups (LGs). Significant QTLs at the genome-wide level were detected, and, although they exhibited a large degree of instability from year to year, QTLs for the ratio of soluble solids to acidity (LG2) and malic acid (LG8) and the ratio of tartaric to malic acid (LG8) were stable in at least 2 years. Several annotated genes involved in sugar and acidity pathways co-located with the confidence intervals of these QTLs and are proposed as putative candidate genes for future studies of these traits.

Sustained deficit irrigation (SDI), Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and partial root zone irrigation (PRI) were compared for seven years (2006–2012), in field-grown Monastrell grapevines grafted onto 1103P, in South Eastern Spain. The aim was to distinguish the effects of deficit irrigation per se (irrigation volume) from specific PRI effects (placement of water) on long-term yield-WUE response and berry and wine quality. In addition, we compare several financial indices using cost-benefit analysis to determine economic efficiency and the long-term profitability of producing Monastrell wine grapes under SDI, RDI and PRI in semiarid conditions of SE Spain. Five treatments were applied: SDI irrigated at 60–40% ETc (crop evapotranspiration) for the whole season (308-211 mm year −1 ); a moderate RDI strategy (110–191 mm year −1 ) under conventional drip irrigation (RDI-1) and under PRI (PRI-1); and a more-severe RDI strategy (90–144 mm year −1 ) under conventional drip irrigation (RDI-2) and under PRI (PRI-2). In general, the SDI strategy, involving more irrigation, improved technological berry quality a nd financial efficiency, to the detriment of WUE yield , berry and wine polyphenolic content. By contrast, long-term deficit irrigation strategies (PRI and RDI) increased WUE yield , berry polyphenolic content and wine quality, but at the expense of lower financial efficiency compared to SDI. PRI-2 and RDI-2 (the most-severely water-stressed vines) showed greater carryover effects of water stress, yield reduction and lower overall berry and wine quality (including technological and phenolic composition) than the moderately-water-stressed vines (RDI-1 and PRI-1). Among the DI treatments, the PRI-1 strategy was the one which most improved the long-term yield-quality-WUE response, water productivity and berry anthocyanin content and was also the most economically profitable. In contrast, long-term PRI-2, although it improved some technological quality attributes and phenolic characteristics and enhanced nutraceutical properties in Monastrell berries and wines (flavonols, malvidins, acylated anthocyanins and amino acids) compared to RDI-2, did not have a positive effect on WUE yield and yield (yield, cluster and berry weight decreased in some years) and its implementation in the current market conditions, was economically unviable. The significant interaction between irrigation volume (high vs. low) and irrigation system (PRI vs. RDI) indicate that the response to PRI also depended on the volume of water applied in the wet root zone and the soil total water availability. We identified an optimum irrigation water volume range (134–200 mm year −1 ) and an optimum range of yield (8000–12000 kg ha −1 ) in order to develop long-term, efficient and economically-profitable deficit irrigation strategies in Monastrell vineyards under semiarid conditions.

Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and partial root zone irrigation (PRI) were compared for four years (2009–2012), each at two different irrigation volumes (110 mm year−1 (1) and 78 mm year−1 (2)), in field-grown Monastrell grapevines grafted onto 1103P, in South Eastern Spain. The aim was to distinguish the effects of deficit irrigation per se from specific PRI effects (placement of water) on yield response and berry and wine quality. Vines grown with PRI-1 or RDI-1 received around 30% of the ETc from budburst to fruit set, 13–15% ETc from fruit set to veraison and 20% ETc from veraison to harvest. The RDI-2 and PRI-2 vines received around 20% ETc from budburst to fruit set, no irrigation from fruit set to veraison and a recovery (21-24% ETc) thereafter. In general, the PRI-2 and RDI-2 vines (the most-severely water-stressed) showed greater yield reduction and lower overall berry and wine quality (including technological and phenolic composition) than the moderately-water-stressed vines (RDI-1 and PRI-1). Compared to RDI-1, PRI-1 improved the yield response—increasing mean yield, cluster number per vine and berry weight and maintaining better bunch health at late ripening and a greater proportion of bigger bunches. In addition, PRI-1 increased the anthocyanin and amino acid concentrations of the berries and altered their composition, improving the phenolic and chromatic characteristics of the wine and enhancing the health-promoting value of the fruit. It was also the option most economically viable under the present conditions of the wine grape market, compared to RDI-1 and the rest of the treatments. In contrast, PRI-2, although it improved some technological quality attributes and phenolic and chromatic characteristics of Monastrell berries and wines compared to RDI-2, did not have a positive effect on yield (yield and cluster and berry weight decreased in some years) and its implementation was economically unviable under these soil and climatic conditions. The significant interaction between irrigation volume (high vs. low) and irrigation placement (PRI vs. RDI) indicate that the response to PRI also depended on the volume of water applied in the wet root zone and the soil total water availability.

The application of different elicitors to plants has proved a useful technique for the improvement of their phenolic content. However, studies have shown that the exact response of plants to elicitors depends both on variety and clone. In the present study, two elicitors (benzothiadiazole and methyl jasmonate) were applied in a vineyard where a collection of the six selected clones of Monastrell grape variety were planted to determine whether any observed effect was clone-dependent. The analysis of anthocyanins, flavonols, stilbenes, and seed and skin tannins showed that, in general, both elicitors increased the levels of phenolic compounds in the treated plants, although the extent of the response differed among different clones from the same variety. The positive effect of both benzothiadiazole and methyl jasmonate indicated that such treatments could be regarded as useful for improving grape and wine color while also increasing resistance to some pathogens. However, a preliminary exploratory field study should be carried out since differences in the response of the grapes to treatment might occur, depending on the clone.

The effects of three deficit irrigation strategies pre and post- veraison , on soil–plant water status and their influence on leaf area, cluster microclimate, fruit growth, yield and berry and wine quality were evaluated for three years (2009–2011) in field-grown Monastrell grapevines under semiarid conditions in South-Eastern (SE) Spain. Three treatments were applied: a Sustained Deficit Irrigated treatment (SDI) was irrigated at 40% of the Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) throughout the orchard cycle, 211 mm year −1 ; a Regulated Deficit Irrigation treatment 1 (RDI-1 threholds ) received 30% ETc (2009 and 2010) or 20% ETc (2011) from budburst to fruit set. From fruit set to harvest the irrigation was established by maintaining an average mid-day stem water potential ( Ψ s ) within the range −1.2 > Ψ s ≥ −1.3 MPa and from veraison to harvest within the range −1.3 > Ψ s > −1.4 MPa, 106 mm year −1 ); And a Regulated Deficit Irrigation treatment 2 (RDI-2 cutoff-thresholds ) received 20% ETc (2009 and 2010) or 10% ETc (2011) from budburst to fruit set and from fruit set to veraison an irrigation cut-off was applied. Then, from veraison to harvest, an irrigation recovery was applied based on maintaining mid-day Ψ s within the range of Ψ s proposed: −1.3 > Ψ s > −1.4 MPa (similar to RDI-1), 76 mm year −1 ). A recovery of irrigation at 40% ETc was used in all treatments from harvest to leaf fall. The RDI-1 thresholds strategy, which applied moderate water stress during pre and post- veraison , saved water, reduced vine vigor and vegetative development, controlled yield, improved cluster microclimate, maintained similar or even higher sugar content in the berries and improved the phenolic composition of Monastrell grapes and wines compared to the SDI and RDI-2 strategies. RDI-1 thresholds vines increased color intensity, sugar and total anthocyanins in the berries, and color intensity, alcohol content, concentration of polyphenols and total anthocyanins and flavonols in the wines. In contrast, in the RDI-2 cutoff-thresholds strategy, which had complete irrigation cut-off during the pre- veraison period (from fruit set to veraison) substantially decreased lateral shoot and berry growth at veraison , and also excessively reduced photosynthetic activity, water status pre- veraison and the resilience of photosynthesis during veraison - early ripening period, which was not beneficial from a physiological and agronomical point of view for Monastrell grapevines in SE Spain.

Pre-harvest treatments of grapevine (‘Monastrell’) with the plant defence response elicitor benzothiadiazole (BTH, 0.3 mM) and methyl jasmonate (10 mM), an important growth regulator, were applied to check whether these compounds could enhance stilbene accumulation in berries at the moment of harvest, due to the interesting health properties of the stilbenes in grapes and wines. Both compounds were sprayed on clusters at veraison. Both compounds enhanced the level of stilbenes in grapes, the highest increase being found with the use of methyl jasmonate. Since a highest presence of stilbenes in grapes could be a protection against mould infection, the application of these compounds could, not only improve the healthiness of grapes, but also limit the use of fungicides.

Background and Aims: The evolution of seed tannins in three grape varieties grown in the same vineyard was followed from preveraison to harvest, to determine their pattern of accumulation. Also, to elucidate whether the use of 70% acetone as extracting solvent overestimate what will occur during fermentation, seed tannins were extracted throughout the ripening period with a method that involved a 3 days extraction with aqueous 12.5% ethanol and the results compared with the acetone extraction method. Methods and Results: For both methods, the extracted tannins were analysed following acid-catalysis in the presence of excess of phloroglucinol. Seed tannins reached a maximum around veraison and decreased towards maturity, the mean degree of polymerization (mDP) varying only slightly during the studied period. When tannins were extracted with 12.5% ethanol, their concentration was much higher during the first part of the maturation than using acetone but was significantly lower at harvest. Conclusions: The decrease in extractable seed tannins during ripening was observed with both solvents. The differences observed in the concentration of tannins with both solvents could be due to the histochemical changes occurring in seeds during maturation. Significance of the Study: The differences observed in tannin concentration with the two different methods may indicate that when pulp maturity is reached before seeds are ripe, the fermenting solution will extract more tannins than the acetone method. These results point to the importance of extraction methodology when monitoring seed maturity for the prediction of seed tannins in wine.

The aim of this work was to study the phenotypic segregation of different agronomic and fruit quality traits, and their relationships, in Monastrell × Syrah wine grape progeny. Twenty-two agronomic traits were evaluated and compared for three consecutive years in this progeny. The results show the phenotypic diversity existing in a cross between two different wine grape cultivars. Most of the phenological, productive, morphological, and enological parameters evaluated displayed continuous variation within the progeny, suggesting a polygenic inheritance. Some correlations between traits were detected by the Spearman correlation test, although high coefficients were not found for most of them. Cluster analysis of the progeny grouped the hybrids based on criteria with significance for wine grape breeding. Also, we investigated the relationship between the skin color and total content of anthocyanins with the VvmybA genotype, using the CAPS (Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequence) marker 20D18CB9. The results show that hybrids with two copies of the functional color allele tend to have increased anthocyanins content. Based on this study, 14 genotypes were pre-selected from the breeding population for additional quality studies.

Aims: Biogenic amines were determined in 109 wines from two wineproducing areas (Jumilla and Bullas PDOs) situated in the Murcia region (SE Spain).Methods and Results: Biogenic amines (histamine, ethylamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, tryptamine and cadaverine) were analysed by RP-HPLC with o-phthaldialdehyde precolumn derivatization and fluorescence detection. Histamine and putrescine were the most prevalent amines in Jumilla wines (49 and 48%, respectively), whereas tryptamine and putrescine were the most prevalent ones in Bullas wines (19 and 38%, respectively). Multivariate analyses were used to attempt a preliminary classification of wines according to production area.Conclusion: In general, wines from Jumilla PDO had a higher biogenic amine content than wines from Bullas PDO; however, all of them were safe from the health point of view.Significance and impact of the study: This study demonstrates that the Jumilla and Bullas wines studied are safe to drink and that geographical classification based on biogenic amine profiles is not possible with the analysed samples.

Summary The aim of our research has been to investigate the pattern of accumulation of anthocyanins in the skin of Monastrell variety and to establish if the fingerprint of this cultivar changed in six different areas from Denomination of Origen Jumilla during ripening stage in two consecutive seasons (2007 and 2008). The results show that the anthocyanin profile for Monastrell variety is maintained: it could be observed a higher proportion of non-acylated anthocyanins, a higher proportion of coumarylated than acetyl derivatives and a higher proportion of trihydroxylated than dihydroxylated anthocyanins. During ripening period, in all zones studied, we observed the same trends: increasing of cyanidin, peonidin and malvidin-3-glucoside and decreasing of the other two monoglucosides (delphinidin and petunidin). Slightly quantitative differences were observed for the different zones in the 2 years studied, leading to the conclusion that edaphoclimatic factors also influence the accumulation of anthocyanin compounds.

In this study, the grape skin and seed proanthocyanidin profiles from Monastrell x Syrah grape (Vitis vinifera L.) crosses were determined. Concentration and compositional information in extracts was determined by reversed-phase HPLC after acid-catalyzed cleavage in the presence of excess phloroglucinol. In general, the proanthocyanidin compositions of crosses were qualitatively similar to those of Monastrell and Syrah, but, quantitatively, differences were observed. Consistent with transgressive segregation, the proanthocyanidin concentration in some crosses exceeded that in either parent. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study to provide information on the inheritance of proanthocyanidin features from V. vinifera cultivars. The overall objective of this study is to develop new varieties that are well-adapted to our agro-ecological conditions, as Monastrell is, and with a proanthocyanidin profile that will result in high-quality wines.

Aims: The effects of cluster thinning on yield and extractability parameters of Syrah and Tempranillo grapes, as well as the chromatic characteristics of the wines obtained in three consecutive seasons.Methods and results: Grapes of Vitis vinifera L. var. Tempranillo and Syrah were harvested from a commercial vineyard in Jumilla. Two treatments were evaluated: (a) cluster thinned, where in every shoot all the clusters, except the basal one, were removed just before veraison; (b) unthinned control. Yield, physicochemical and extractability parameters were studied in the grapes. Vinifications were made from these grapes, and chromatic parameters were studied at the end of alcoholic fermentation. Results showed that cluster-thinned vines performed better than control vines during the three consecutive years of the experiment, although the best results were obtained in the driest year (2005). The Syrah variety always provided better results than the Tempranillo variety. The cluster-thinning treatment also influenced the chromatic characteristics of the wines obtained.Conclusions: The results showed that thinning successfully reduced yield and produced an earlier harvest in the two varieties studied. The grape quality improved and, in general, wines made from cluster-thinned vines of both Syrah and Tempranillo had significantly better chromatic characteristics than control wines.Significance and impact of the study: This study demonstrate that the practice of cluster-thinning may be recommended depending on several factors, as the varieties and the climatic conditions play also a role in the extractability parameters of grapes, and therefore its use cannot be generalized.

During the fermentation of grape sugars there is a formation of CO2, which escapes along with other volatile compounds being formed during the fermentation. To determine these lost main compounds, we placed an experimental system in a winery, which consisted in a cold trap connected to the exit of the fermentation tanks.

This study compares the vegetative growth and productive parameters of non-irrigated Monastrell vines with those under two moderate irrigation treatments. Plant water status and gas exchange parameters were used to evaluate the effect of moderate irrigation on the physiological status of the plants. The predawn and midday leaf water potentials were significantly lower in non irrigated vines, reaching values that indicated severe water stress. Stomatic conductance decreased as the season progressed, especially in non-irrigated vines. This stomata closure resulted in lower net photosynthesis, which affected vegetative growth and productivity. Non-irrigated vines developed a very small canopy and pruning weight together with a very low production compared with irrigated vines. The results demonstrate that the improvement in the physiological status of plants, with moderate irrigation leads to higher yield together with an equilibrium in the vegetative/reproductive growth. Este estudio compara el crecimiento vegetativo y los parámetros productivos de vides Monastrell en secano y otras con dos tratamiento de riego. Para evaluar el efecto del riego en la planta, se midieron los potenciales hídricos al alba y al mediodía y los parámetros de intercambio gaseoso. Los potenciales hídricos fueron significativamente menores en plantas en secano, alcanzando valores que indican un fuerte estrés hídrico. La conductancia estomática decreció al avanzar la estación, especialmente en viñas en secano. El cierre estomático se tradujo en una fotosíntesis neta menor, lo que afectó al desarrollo vegetativo y al rendimiento. Las viñas en secano desarrollaron una masa foliar muy pequeña y un peso de poda muy bajo. Los resultados demuestran que la mejora del estado hídrico de las plantas condujo a producciones mayores y a un correcto balance entre el desarrollo vegetativo y productivo.

The effect of moderate irrigation on berry composition during the ripening of Monastrell grapes and the quality of wines produced from these grapes in a very dry area of southeastern Spain have been studied. The results showed that irrigated grapes reached higher weights but this did not impair sugar accumulation. Titratable acidity and pH were only slightly affected by irrigation, titratable acidity was higher in only one year in the most irrigated grapes at the end of ripening, mainly due to a higher malic acid content. Anthocyanin content in must was slightly lower in irrigated grapes. The results of the sensory analysis of the wines showed that wines made from non irrigated grapes usually obtained the highest scores for quality and intensity of color and aroma although differences were small. Se ha estudiado, durante dos años, el efecto del riego moderado en la vid (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Monastrell, en zonas con un alto déficit hídrico, sobre la evolución de la composición físico-química de las uvas durante su maduración y la calidad de los vinos obtenidos y los resultados se han comparado con uvas de vides no regadas. Las uvas de vides con un riego moderado alcanzaron pesos de baya más altos, pero el riego no produjo ningún retraso en la acumulación de azúcares en la baya. La acidez total y el pH se vieron poco afectados por el riego. La concentración de antocianos en el mosto fue ligeramente menor en las uvas de vides regadas y consecuentemente, el color de los vinos obtenidos se vio afectado por el riego. Los vinos del tratamiento en secano obtuvieron los resultados mejores en el análisis sensorial, aunque las diferencias fueron pequeñas.

The results showed that moderately irrigated vines produced berries with a higher anthocyanin content (expressed as mg/100 berries) than non-irrigated vines. These findings suggest that moderate levels of water doses may actually improve the physiological status of vines grown in very dry areas, resulting in higher yields and higher quality grapes. The higher yields were mainly related to larger berry size which led to a lower anthocyanin content when expressed as mg/kg, due to a dilution effect. This fact is also responsible for the lower anthocyanin content of the wines elaborated with grapes from irrigated vines although irrigation per se did not decrease the concentration of anthocyanins in grapes.

This note presents the study of levels of total volatile compounds and monoterpene levels of Italia grapes grafted onto eight rootstocks as well as yield, soluble solids, berry weight and cluster weight, in order to determine if there is any difference in the aromatic composition of the berries. This study has been performed during one year in an Italian vineyard in Murcia (Spain).