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This study analyzed the rectal and surface temperature of the horse's body, its heart rate variability parameters, and the step length when walking and trotting geriatric horses using blankets with various thermoinsulating properties. Twenty-four hot-blooded geldings were included in the study. The experiment was conducted in winter over a period of 30 consecutive days. The horses in the study were kept under three types of blankets (light, medium, thick). The control group was kept without blankets. The rectal and surface body temperature and the HRV parameters were measured before the experiment, immediately after the blankets were removed and an hour later. The step length when walking and trotting was measured before the experiment and the day before it was finished. The use of horse blankets in winter was found to have a positive effect on increasing the surface temperature of geriatric horses and thicker blankets produced more significant effects. For thick winter blankets, since one would expect an increase in the rectal temperature and elongation of the trotting step, it is recommended that they should be used at all times for geriatric horses prone to hypothermia and horses with painful muscles in the hind legs and the shoulder as the most common cause of reducing the length of the trotting step. The use of blankets should also result in a general body vitality improvement, which is demonstrated by a general increase in the activity of the autonomic nervous system, especially the sympathetic system.

Simple Summary Horses lacking exposure to cattle often show a fearful response when confronted with cows. In controlled conditions, we tested the responses towards two cows and a novel moving object in twenty horses in arena and hand-leading tests. The horses avoided the proximity of all stimuli, but of one of the cows the most. However, both cows provoked a stronger cardiac response than an inanimate object. We hypothesise that this response may be due to both neophobia and heterospecific interactions. Abstract Ridden horses have been reported to be fearful of cows. We tested whether cows could provoke behavioural and cardiac fear responses in horses, and whether these responses differ in magnitude to those shown to other potential dangers. Twenty horses were exposed to cow, a mobile object or no object. The time spent at different distances from the stimulus was measured. In a separate test, heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats (RMSSD) and the horses’ perceived fear were assessed at various distances from the stimuli. The horses avoided the area nearest to all stimuli. During hand-leading, the cow elicited the highest HR and lowest RMSSD. Led horses’ responses to the cow and box were rated as more fearful as the distance to the stimulus decreased. Mares had a higher HR than geldings across all tests. HR positively correlated with the fearfulness rating at the furthest distance from the cow and box, and RMSSD negatively correlated with this rating in cow and control conditions. Our results show that these horses’ avoidance response to cows was similar or higher to that shown towards a novel moving object, demonstrating that potentially, both neophobia and heterospecific communication play a role in this reaction.

Physical effort is one of the key aspects of keeping horses in good condition. The condition of the animal is reflected by multiple blood parameters. The newly discovered cytokine-apelin can pose one of them, however, so far, has not been studied in the horse population. Apelin is produced by adipocytes and myocytes and plays an important role in the energy metabolism of the body through the influence, for example, on the process of adipogenesis and lipolysis. The aim of this study was to investigate if physical effort of various intensity affects the plasma concentration of apelin in horses. The study involved 20 purebred Arabian horses divided into two groups. The first group included 10 race horses, aged 3 years, and second group included 10 horses aged from 6 to 12 years, used in endurance rides. Blood samples were collected from each horse at rest and after exercise. The concentrations of apelin, lactic acid, cortisol, uric acid (UA), triacylglycerols, total plasma protein, and glucose were determined in plasma samples. Race training sessions induced significant decreases in plasma apelin concentrations (P.05). In endurance horses, significant correlations were found only between exercise-induced changes of apelin and cortisol (r = 0.55) and apelin and UA (r = 0.67) concentrations. In conclusion, the concentration of apelin in equine plasma decreases in response to short-time exercise unlike endurance exercise. Blood plasma apelin concentration determined at rest is lower in long-time regularly trained horses than in the ones at the beginning of their training process.

The aim of the study was to assess the effects of training on haematological and biochemical blood parameters as well as on the changes in body surface temperature in horses. In order to identify the predictive value of surface temperature measurements as a marker of animal's performance, their correlations with blood parameters were investigated. The study was carried out on nine horses divided into two groups: routinely ridden and never ridden. Infrared thermography was used to assess surface temperature changes before (BT) and just after training (JAT) on a treadmill. Seven regions of interest (ROIs) located on the neck, shoulder, elbow, back, chest, gluteus and quarter were analysed. The blood samples were taken BT, JAT and 30 min after training (30AT). Haematological parameters including white blood cells, lymphocytes (LYMs), monocytes (MONOs), granulocytes (GRAs), eosinophils (EOSs), haematocrit (HCT) and platelets (PLTs) as well as biochemical parameters such as glucose (GLUC), urea, Na+, K+ and Ca2+, and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) were analysed. Our results indicated a significant increase in surface temperature JAT (p=0.043) in the neck, shoulder, elbow, gluteus and quarter in routinely ridden horses. Significant changes in EOS (p=0.046) and HCT (p=0.043) in the case of the never-ridden and routinely ridden group, respectively, were found between the times of blood collection. In addition, there was a significant effect of the horse group and the time of blood collection on the CPK activity (p=0.025 to p=0.045) and urea concentrations (p=0.027 to p=0.045). In the routinely ridden horses, there were significant correlations between the changes in MONO (ρ=0.40), GRA (ρ=-0.40), PLT (ρ=-0.77), HCT (ρ=-0.36), GLUC (ρ=0.56) and urea (ρ=0.56) and the total ROI temperature changes. Moreover, significant correlations between the changes in MONO (ρ=-0.86), EOS (ρ=-0.65), GLUC (ρ=0.85), urea (ρ=0.85), Na+ (ρ=0.59) and K+ (ρ=-0.85) and the total ROI temperature changes were found in never-ridden horses. Different changes in body surface temperature and blood parameters in routinely ridden and never-ridden horses could be associated with different conditioning and performance. A significantly higher surface temperature in routinely ridden horses, as well as the dynamics of changes in HCT, CPK and urea after training indicate better performance of these horses. Significant correlations between MONO, GLUC, and urea and a total ROI surface temperature as well as a negative correlation between MONO and the total ROI temperature in never-ridden horses indicated poor performance.

Background Predatory attacks on horses can become a problem in some parts of the world, particularly when considering the recovering gray wolf populations. The issue studied was whether horses transformed by humans and placed in stable-pasture environments had retained their natural abilities to respond to predation risk. The objective of the study was to determine the changes in cardiac activity, cortisol concentrations, and behavior of horses in response to the vocalizations of two predators: the gray wolf (Canis lupus), which the horses of the breed studied had coevolved with but not been exposed to recently, and Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), from which the horses had been mostly isolated. In addition, we hypothesized that a higher proportion of Thoroughbred (TB) horse ancestry in the pedigree would result in higher emotional excitability in response to predator vocalizations. Nineteen horses were divided into groups of 75%, 50% and 25% TB ancestry. The auditory test conducted in a paddock comprised a 10-min prestimulus period, a 5-min stimulus period when one of the predators was heard, and a 10-min poststimulus period without any experimental stimuli. Results The increase in heart rate and saliva cortisol concentration in response to predator vocalizations indicated some level of stress in the horses. The lowered beat-to-beat intervals revealed a decrease in parasympathetic nervous system activity. The behavioral responses were less distinct than the physiological changes. The responses were more pronounced with leopard vocalizations than wolf vocalizations. Conclusions The horses responded with weak signs of anxiety when exposed to predator vocalizations. A tendency towards a stronger internal reaction to predators in horses with a higher proportion of TB genes suggested that the response intensity was partly innate. The more pronounced response to leopard than wolf may indicate that horses are more frightened of a threatening sound from an unknown predator than one known by their ancestors. The differing response can be also due to differences in the characteristic of the predators’ vocalizations. Our findings suggested that the present-day horses’ abilities to coexist with predators are weak. Hence, humans should protect horses against predation, especially when introducing them into seminatural locations.

It was assumed that a horse with its rider body weight found in the upper limit may negatively impact the horse&rsquo, s welfare. The objective of this paper was to analyze the differences in body temperature and selected heart rate parameters in horses in response to physical exercise accompanied by various rider&rsquo, s body weight loads. The study was carried out on 12 leisure, 10&ndash, 15-year-old warmblood geldings. The horses were ridden by two equally qualified riders whose body weights were about 20% and 10% of the average body weight (BW) of the animals (about 470 kg). Each rider rode each of the 12 horses for 13 min walking and 20 min of trotting. Images of the horse at rest, after physical exercise directly after unsaddling, and during the recovery phase (10 min after unsaddling) were taken with an infrared thermography camera. For analysis, the temperatures of selected body parts were measured on the surface of the head, neck, front, middle, and back (croup) parts of the trunk, forelimb, and hind limb. Immediately after the infrared thermography images were taken, the rectal temperature of the horse was measured. The heart rate parameters were measured at rest for 10 min directly before, during, and 10 min following the end of a training session. A multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measurements was performed. Statistical significance was accepted for p &lt, 0.05. A rider BW load on a horse of approximately 20% of the horse&rsquo, s BW led to a substantial increase in the superficial temperatures of the neck, front, middle, and back parts of the trunk in relation to these body parts&rsquo, average temperatures when the load was about 10% BW. The head and limb average temperatures were not significantly affected by the load of the exercised horse. A horse&rsquo, s load above 20% of his body weight, even with little effort, affects changes in surface temperature and the activity of the autonomic nervous system.

Training the horse is based on human–horse relationship, which requires that the horse shows active, conscious behaviour as well as an ability to learn. It was hypothesized that the horse's learning skill to open the crib is correlated with the effectiveness of training. The aim of the study was to find out whether there is a relationship between the time needed for a naive horse to open the crib and to accomplish first saddling and mounting. 120 horses were examined: 40 Thoroughbreds (TB), 40 Purebred Arabians (PA), and 40 halfbred Angloarabians (AA). There were 20 colts and 20 fillies in each breed group. The times needed by the horse to open the crib (Crib Opening Test) were assumed as a measure of an aspect of learning skill. The effectiveness of the initial training of the horse was evaluated by the times needed to first saddling and mounting the naive horse (Saddling Test and Mounting Test) as well as by heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in Saddling Test and Mounting Test. Horse behaviour during the tests was assessed. It took the TB horses significantly longer to open the crib than it took the AA horses (306 s vs 191 s, respectively). Numerous statistically significant correlations were found between the results of Crib Opening Test and the results of Saddling Test performed by the TB fillies and AA horses: positive with HR, and negative with some HRV parameters. Correlations between the results of Crib Opening Test and Mounting Test were negative with HR and positive with beat-to-beat time (RR) for the PA and AA fillies. It seems that the horses which quickly succeed in Crib Opening Test are calm during the first phase of the initial training until saddling, but they do not willingly accept mounting. However, the relationship between the time of opening the crib and response to the training should be analysed separately in particular horse breeds and sexes.

EnglishThe aim of this study was to determine whether there is a correlation between the intensity of warm-up and scores of horse-rider dyads in jumping competitions, and which factors affect the warm-up regime. Three international competitions of 120, 130, and 135cm obstacle height, completed by 82 competitors, were studied. Warm-up intensity was measured by the time spent in the schooling area, number of practice jumping efforts, and coefficient of practice obstacle height. Out of the official final scores in the competitions, penalty points in the round and converted final placings were used as outcome measures. The data were analyzed with Spearman’s correlation, multifactorial analysis of variance, and Tukey’s test. The rider’s sex, part of the world that the riders came from, horse’s sex, age, and competitive level (obstacle height) were considered. Results showed that more jumps and higher obstacles during warm-up decrease the horse-rider dyad’s performance in jumping competition, whereas the duration of the total warm-up time does not affect the score. Female riders warm up horses longer but jump lower fences than male riders. Riders do not differentiate the warm-up regime with regard to the horse’s sex, whereas they considered the horse’s age. The warm-up intensity does not increase proportionally to the competitive level. Key words: equestrian sport; jumping; warm-up; horse; rider portuguesO objetivo do estudo foi determinar se existe uma correlacao entre a intensidade do desempenho de aquecimento e os resultados de um conjunto cavalo-cavaleiro em competicoes de saltos, assim como tambem determinar os fatores que afetam esta intensidade. Avaliaram-se tres concursos internacionais com obstaculos de 120, 130 e 135cm de altura, que foram completadas por 82 conjuntos. A intensidade do aquecimento foi medida pelo tempo gasto na area de pratica, o numero de saltos realizados durante o treino e o coeficiente de altura dos obstaculos saltados durante o treino. Dos resultados oficiais finais da competicao, utilizaram-se como indicadores os pontos de penalizacao e o posicionamento obtido. Os dados foram analisados por meio da correlacao de Spearman, da analise multivariada de variância e do teste de Tukey. Levaram-se em conta o sexo do cavaleiro, a sua naturalidade; sexo e idade do cavalo e o nivel da competicao (altura de obstaculos). Os resultados demonstram que quanto mais saltos executados e quanto maiores eram os obstaculos utilizados durante o aquecimento, piores foram os resultados conjunto na competicao, contudo, o tempo de aquecimento nao afeta os resultados. As amazonas aquecem o cavalo por mais tempo e saltam obstaculos mais baixos do que os homens. Os cavaleiros nao diferenciam a intensidade do aquecimento em funcao do sexo do cavalo, mas, levam em consideracao a idade do cavalo. A intensidade do aquecimento nao aumenta proporcionalmente com o nivel da competicao. Palavras-chave: equitacao; saltos; aquecimento; cavalo; cavaleiro

Despite progress in equine sports science which has brought improved training programmes, little is known about the basic physiology of the musculature in the exercising horse. Using electromyography, Harrison et al. [1] demonstrated a range of activation times for the different limb muscles, which was found to be dependent on the gait of the horse. However, electromyography is unsuitable for large studies due to its complex nature.

Touching the skin by gentle stroking is frequently used to reward horses. The objective of the study was to examine emotional excitability and behaviour of horses in response to stroking different regions of their bodies. The study included 15 adult warmbloods and 15 adult ponies, nine geldings and six mares within each type of horse. First, a novel-object test was conducted. For five successive days, one of five regions of the horse's body was stroked on each side for 5 min. Heart rate and heart rate variability were monitored at rest, during the test and stroking. Simultaneously, horse behaviour was assessed on a 1-5 scale. The data were analysed using analysis of variance GLM, Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference test and Spearman's correlation coefficient. When stroked, horses were more excited than when at rest. Differences in emotional excitability and behaviour while stroking various body regions depended on the type and sex of horses. Parameters studied indicated that both in warmbloods and ponies, stroking the head may be beneficial, whereas the trunk should be treated with caution. Stroking may have a more positive influence in horses of lower emotionality and highly estimated behaviour at rest and during the novel-object test.

The objective of this study was to compare the responses of horses of different breeds to a sympathetic training method used during an initial training period, before the horses started their first racing season. Subject animals were 72 horses: 24 Thoroughbreds, 24 Purebred Arabians, and 24 Angloarabs. Each breed group consisted of 12 colts and 12 fillies. The sympathetic method used to train the horses lasted for 3 days in a row, one session per day. Training was divided into five stages, each stage made up of particular tasks to be achieved. The horse’s reaction to the training was measured with the length of time (seconds) necessary to complete a stage and the horse’s heart rate (bpm) during the stages. Data were analyzed by using multifactorial analysis of variance, taking into account the effect of horse breed, sex, and training session. Results showed that horses of various breeds had different responses to the training. The Angloarabs took the longest to complete the training stages. The 3-day training period caused the highest reaction in the Angloarabs, and the 3-day period was too short to allow for more than half of them to be mounted. Heart rate was more increased in Purebred Arabian and Angloarab fillies than in colts, which shows that fillies require particularly gentle treatment.

The objective of the study was to compare the horse's body parts in position at the first approach stride, with the size of the jump. The size of the jump was accepted as the measure of the horse's performance. The experiment included the filming of 540 young warmblood stallions free jumping a 120 cm high oxer. Ten traits assumed to be connected with the size of the jump were measured by digital image analysis. Pearson's correlations between the parameters were calculated. Our results demonstrated the four traits that are most important in judgement of the young horse's jumping ability at the approach stride 1. The low angle of bending at poll positively influences the size of the jump. Angles of the positions of neck and trailing hindlimb cannon have a positive effect only up to 100° and up to 40°, respectively. The poll–obstacle distance should not exceed 120 cm.

The aim of this study was to estimate the emotional response to novelty and to expectation of novelty in young race horses. The novelty in this study was the first training on an automated horse walker at a new training center. To estimate the level of emotionality in horses, the telemetric measurement of heart rate (HR) was used. A hypothesis was developed that expectation of novelty can be as exciting for horses as a novelty test. In this study, 40 horses were studied just before and then during their first walk on an automated horse walker. They were divided into four groups, with 10 horses in each group. These groups were as follows: (1) 1.5-year-old Thoroughbred colts, (2) 1.5-year-old Thoroughbred fillies, (3) 2.5-year-old Purebred Arabian colts, and (4) 2.5-year-old Purebred Arabian fillies. HR was measured at rest before exercise, during handling and moving the horse from the stable, while walking on the automated horse walker for about 20 minutes, while moving the horse from the walker to the stable, and at rest after exercise. HR response to the anticipation of novelty was higher in colts than in fillies, particularly in the group of Thoroughbreds.

The aim of the study was to define the influence of the selected factors (gender, age, transportation time, riding distance and air temperature during the ride) on the cortisol secretion and finding a correlation between the hormone level and the horses’ sport results (veterinary parameters and the ride route parameters). The research was performed on 38 Arabian pure breed horses taking part in the endurance rides. The cortisol level was measured with enzyme-immunological method in saliva samples, taken four times from each horse. In order to verify the differences between the mean results the repeated measures design was applied. The significance of the differences between the mean values was determined by the Tukey test. To evaluate the interrelations between the analysed attributes Pearson’s correlation analysis was applied. The cortisol level at rest was not affected by any of the analysed factors. In case of other results, the most significant influence (P ≤ 0.05) was related to the gender, as well as the ride distance and air temperature during the ride. Higher cortisol level was noted in mares, horses running the longest distances and at the highest temperatures. A significant increase in the cortisol level was noted when the ride distance was longer. There were no clear correlation between the adrenal cortex activity and the veterinary parameters at different riding speed. High cortisol concentration can negatively affect the heart rate (HR) by increasing it, but it can simultaneously stimulate the body to fight dehydration.

This study compared the physiological response to novel situations in sex-separated and sex-mixed groups of horses, as measured by heart rate (HR). The study evaluated the possibility of training horses in a mixed-sex system. The study included 41 Purebred Arabian 2½-year-olds during their first walk on an automated horse walker. Four groups, divided by manner of care and training, consisted of 10 colts and 10 fillies kept in separate stables and trained in separate male or female groups and 12 colts and 9 fillies kept in the same stable and trained together. The study measured HR when horses were at rest before exercise, while moving from stable to walker, during 30 min of exercise on walker, while moving from walker to stable, and at rest after exercise. Mean HR scores recorded from training on the walker were higher in sex-mixed groups. Results obtained while horses were moving from stable to walker, then from walker to stable, were significantly higher in the sex-mixed groups. The study did not recommend training young horses in sex-mixed groups.

s / Journal of Veterinary Behavior 8 (2013) e1ee25 e12 were significantly lower median HRs (P < 0.05) for those wearing the magnetic rug at the start (34 bpm, control 36 bpm), at 30 seconds (41 bpm, control 44 bpm) and at 60 seconds (34 bpm, control 36 bpm). These results suggest that static magnetic therapy may successfully work in creating and maintaining lower heart rates. The order of the testing or the treatments did not influence the results. HR is just one physiological parameter that may be assessed. It is recommended that further field studies may be used to assess the effect of static magnetic rugs on other physiological parameters such as cortisol. If HRs are taken as an indicator of stress, in the long term the application of a magnetic rug may help to decrease stress and therefore positively aid the behavior and welfare of the horse. The wearing of the rug containing static magnets has been shown to decrease heart rates. Increased heart rates tend to be an indicator of stress in a horse. It may therefore be that application of a similar magnetic rug either prior to, or during, a situation which a horse finds stressful could help to keep heart rates low and have a positive effect on the welfare of the horse. However, use of the magnetic rug should not be seen as a ‘green light’ to stress the horse even more.