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The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore homeless young adults' perceptions of the systemic, situational, and intrapersonal barriers they encounter across multiple systems in trying to exit homelessness and the ways these barriers are interrelated. Thirty-one homeless young adults (ages 18–26) in Phoenix and Tempe, Arizona were recruited for in-depth interviews from two resource centers serving homeless youth. Template analysis was used to systematically analyze and code participants' verbatim transcripts from the interviews into a template (codebook). Characteristic quotes from the interviews are used to illustrate the emergent themes. Findings indicate that structural barriers faced by homeless youth include inadequate homeless resources, employment challenges, discrimination by law enforcement, hot climate, lack of transportation, and legal concerns. Situational barriers include interpersonal relationships, the street environment, and lack of personal resources. Intrapersonal barriers include behavioral, mental, and physical health challenges, reluctance to reach out for help, money management, and lack of desire for stable housing. Participants also outlined multiple ways in which these barriers interact to hinder their exiting homelessness. Findings support current literature applying ecological theory to the issue of homelessness while highlighting young people's own contextual descriptions of their lived experiences. Three approaches are recommended for improving homeless services with integrated housing, employment, and clinical interventions to help young adults successfully exit homeless. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contrary to the perception that the business community can be hostile and exclusive toward individuals experiencing homelessness, local businesses can and do serve homeless populations at multiple levels. This article proposes a theoretical framework that links the versatile roles that local businesses can play in addressing various dimensions of human needs. This theoretical framework is illustrated through two models in Washington, D.C. and Los Angeles, which focus on the role of business improvement districts (BIDs) and a social enterprise intervention (SEI), respectively. These models demonstrate that the business community can meet not only physical needs but also the emotional and self-actualization goals of homeless individuals. This article suggests that social work education and field education curricula can benefit from engaging the business sector in addressing complex social issues, such as homelessness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This randomized controlled trial compared the efficacy between the Social Enterprise Intervention (SEI) and Individual Placement and Support (IPS) with homeless youth with mental illness to assess their impact on nonvocational outcomes. Method: Seventy-two homeless youth were recruited from one agency and randomized to the SEI (n = 36) or IPS (n = 36) conditions. Over 20 months, SEI participants received four SEI components, and IPS participants received eight IPS components. Data were collected on mental health, housing, and social support outcomes at baseline and one follow-up period. Results: Findings from mixed analysis of variance indicate that both SEI and IPS participants displayed statistically significant changes in their self-esteem, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) problems, inattention problems, living in a shelter, and living in a private residence. Conclusions: This is the first study to demonstrate the comparative efficacy and short-term nonvocational outcomes of SEI and IPS with homeless youth with mental illness. Assessment of long-term outcomes of both interventions is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study used the risk and resilience framework to examine predictors of formal and informal sources of income among homeless young adults. Formal sources of income generation consisted of full-time, part-time, or paid, temporary work. Informal sources included earning money from selling personal possessions, selling drugs, and theft. In all, 601 homeless young adults from three U.S. cities participated in semi-structured interviews. Structural equation modeling assessed whether demographic, homelessness history, mental health, problem behaviors, and resilience predicted income generation source. Income generation from formal sources was associated with being male, having a greater number of problem behaviors, and reporting higher levels of resilience. Informal income generation was associated with younger age, being transient, and reporting a greater number of problem behaviors. Findings underscore the need to address homelessness risk factors to support homeless young adults in securing stable, formal employment as an alternative to informal survival behaviors to earn income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research reveals high rates of geographic mobility (i.e., transience) among homeless young adults (HYAs). Yet to date, little is known about predictors of different aspects of their transience as well as characteristics of the most highly transient HYAs. This study thus used the risk/resilience framework to identify predictors of three measures of HYAs’ transience (i.e., number of intercity moves, total distance traveled, and average distance traveled) as well as to identify the characteristics of the most highly transient HYAs: frequent flyers (i.e., HYAs with seven or more intercity moves), distance travelers (i.e., HYAs who have traveled average distances greater than 1,092 kilometers), and combined frequent flyers and distance travelers (i.e., HYAs with seven or more intercity moves and average travel distances greater than 1,092 kilometers). Purposive sampling was used to recruit 601 HYAs (ages 18–24) from Los Angeles, Austin, and Denver. Three Ordinary Least Squares regression models identified predictors of each facet of transience. Chi-square tests and independentt-tests were then used to identify profiles of frequent flyers and distance travelers by using the upper quartiles on the variablesnumber of intercity movesandaverage distance traveled, respectively. Findings reveal similarities in the risk predictors and profiles. The resilience characteristic of self-reliance was a consistent predictor of all three measures of transience. Understanding that transience among HYAs serves both adaptive and maladaptive purposes can inform service providers in customizing interventions aimed at supporting adaptive travel to make it safer as well as preventing and reducing maladaptive travel. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study examined gender differences among homeless young adults' engagement in illegal economic activity (i.e., panhandling, selling drugs, survival sex, gambling, theft). A purposive sample of 601 homeless young adults (ages 18–24) was recruited from three U.S. cities (Los Angeles, CA [ n = 200], Austin, TX [ n = 200], and Denver, CO [ n = 201]) to participate in semi-structured interviews. General strain theory was used to identify predictors of illegal economic activity, including strains (childhood abuse, street victimization, length of homelessness, transience) and responses to strain (deviant peer associations, substance use, post-traumatic stress disorder, arrest history). The full hypothesized path models for males and females separately were tested using observed-variable path analysis. Among females, a greater variety of illegal income sources was reported by those who had experienced greater street victimization and who had used a greater number of substances in the past year. Among males, a greater variety of illegal income sources was reported by those who had more deviant peer associations, experienced greater street victimization, and used a greater number of substances in the past year. Findings have implications for research and preventive interventions to address engagement in illegal economic activity among male and female homeless young adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study exploring the criminal behavior of homeless young people and examining the correlates of arrest activity among homeless young adults disparate regions of U.S. Results showed that 42.6 percent of study population reported severe arrest activity and that the overall mediation effect from length of time homeless to arrest activity accounted for 11 percent of the total effect from length of time homeless to arrest activity. The study also demonstrated that young adults who were homeless for a longer time were highly involved in criminal behavior, than those who were homeless for shorter durations.

This study assessed the prevalence and correlates of behaviors used by homeless young people to survive on the streets. Survival behaviors include prostitution, selling blood or plasma, dealing drugs, stealing, and panhandling. One hundred ninety-six homeless young adults from 4 metropolitan areas-Los Angeles, CA ( n = 50); Austin, TX ( n = 50); Denver, CO ( n = 50); and St. Louis, MO ( n = 46)-participated in individual, semistructured, face-to-face interviews. Researchers predicted that youth transience would be related to high rates of survival behaviors. Multivariate logistic regression was used to test a model predicting relationships between survival behaviors and transience, employment, substance use, and social support. Young adults who were transient, unemployed, drug-addicted, and reliant on peers for help were more likely to use these survival behaviors. In addition, among the transient subsample, being White, more reliant on peers for help, more transient, and having been victimized were associated with high use of these survival behaviors. Identification of the environmental and demographic factors associated with survival behaviors suggests that there may be value in combining harm-reduction strategies with efforts to reduce the transience of homeless young adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study used data from the Social Enterprise Intervention (SEI) pilot study, a comprehensive vocational training program with integrated clinical services for homeless youth. In-depth interviews were conducted with 28 homeless youth participating in the SEI study to explore their perceptions of family environment characteristics and abuse experiences. The constant comparative method was used to analyze transcripts from in-depth interviews with the youth participants. Emergent themes related to family characteristics include home instability, abandonment, and caregiver substance abuse. Abuse-related subthemes include intrafamilial abuse, caregiver abuse, rejection, and deprecation by caregivers. Grounded theory is used to interpret findings and develop working hypotheses to guide future studies of multitype maltreatment among homeless youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative evaluation of the Social Enterprise Intervention (SEI), a vocational training program for homeless young adults, used summative focus-group data to understand clients' perceptions of outcomes as a result of SEI participation. Data from formative focus-group discussions were also used to assess the intervention process and make necessary changes during the program. Over four months, two process- and one outcomes-oriented focus-group discussions were conducted with street-living young adults in the SEI Program. Open-ended questions were used to explore perceptions of project implementation and client outcomes. Emergent outcomes-related themes include family respect, self-esteem, goal-orientation, labor and social networks, delinquent behavior and societal perceptions of homeless youth. Grounded theory is used to interpret findings and develop working hypotheses to guide future studies of vocational interventions for street-living youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To reduce mental health symptoms and high-risk behaviors and increase social support and service utilization among street-living youth, the authors conducted a pilot study to assess the feasibility of the social enterprise intervention (SEI) at a homeless youth agency. Method: Convenience sampling was used to recruit 16 street-living youth from the agency. SEI participants received 7 months of vocational and small business training and service referrals. A comparison sample of 12 agency youth was used. Results: Findings from independent sample t tests demonstrate that SEI participants displayed significant improvements at 9 months in life satisfaction, family contact, peer support, and depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Preliminary findings suggest that the SEI was feasible within the agency setting and associated with higher mental health and social outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homeless, street-dwelling youths are an at-risk population who often use survival behaviors to meet their basic needs. The traditional outreach approach brings services into the streets, yet does not adequately replace the youths' high-risk behaviors. Similarly, job training programs often fail to address the mental health issues that constitute barriers to their productive employment. Drawing on social development principles, the Social Enterprise Intervention (SEI) model is proposed as an alternative approach. The SEI seeks the tripartite effect of employment, service-related, and mental health outcomes for street youths. This article compares existing intervention models and suggests that through the SEI, homeless youths can acquire vocational and business skills, clinical mentorship, and linkages to services that otherwise would not be available to them, given their street-dwelling status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study sought to determine which faith elements exist in faith-based programs for homeless and street-living youth in Los Angeles, Mumbai and Nairobi and how these concepts are defined according to staff and youth clients. Descriptions of client outcomes across programs are also explored. Quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews were conducted with 22 staff and 11 clients from 11 faith-based programs for homeless youth in Los Angeles. In Mumbai and Nairobi, 6 staff and 12 youth were interviewed from 3 faith-based programs in each city. Findings reveal similarities across cities in services, faith components and client outcomes. Differences are noted in the influence of the socio-political context on service provision. Recommendations are offered to guide faith-based organizations in designing and improving services for homeless and street-living youth. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study aimed to identify homeless youths’ lifestyle and trauma-related risk factors as well as protective factors associated with alcohol use disorder or no disorder and drug use disorder or no disorder. Youth receiving homeless services in Denver (n= 201), Austin (n= 200), and Los Angeles (n= 200;N= 601) completed quantitative interviews assessing demographic information, alcohol and drug use, homeless lifestyle risk factors, trauma-related risk factors, and protective factors. Findings showed differences in trauma-related risk factors between alcohol and drug use disorders, but not homeless lifestyle risks. Protective factors predicted substance use disorders beyond risk factors. Understanding trauma-related risk and protective factors associated with substance use disorders could improve interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Young adults experiencing homelessness (YAEH) face discrimination experiences placing them at risk for negative health outcomes. Prior research demonstrates discrimination and perceived stress among YAEH, yet few studies examine the protective role of online health information-seeking (OHIS) behaviors for YAEH. This study investigated the relationship among OHIS, discrimination, and perceived stress in YAEH (N = 1,426). Descriptive analysis and hierarchical multiple regression analysis were conducted. Results indicate that discrimination was significantly related to perceived stress. OHIS moderated the relationship between discrimination and perceived stress. Findings suggest that providing digital access and creating online informational resources are important engagement strategies for YAEH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research documents that street-involved youth experience rates of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that are significantly higher than their housed counterparts. Trauma and PTSD are of particular concern for homeless youth as they can negatively affect youths’ ability to function adaptively and to transition off the streets. This mixed-methods study investigates the intricacies of trauma experienced by homeless youth across three U.S. cities. Qualitative interviews were conducted with a sample of 145 homeless youth in Los Angeles (n = 50), Denver (n = 50), and Austin (n = 45) to explore youths’ perspectives on the definition of trauma and the contexts associated with victimization. Quantitative standardized assessments investigated youths’ trauma experiences before and after becoming homeless. Trauma screening identified high rates of trauma incidents (78%), with 28% of participants meeting criteria for PTSD. Participants reported various traumatic experiences that occurred before leaving home and while on the streets, and high rates of polyvictimization. Qualitative themes describe particular people and places most vulnerable on the streets. Implications for services to prevent and treat trauma among homeless youth are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Homelessness itself is traumatic, and more than half of homeless young adults have also experienced abuse as children and/or victimization while homeless. These experiences increase the likelihood of developing trauma-related symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Few studies have, however, examined correlates of trauma and PTSD to identify targets for prevention and intervention. We used multinomial logistic regression to assess whether child abuse, victimization once homeless, features of homelessness (duration and transience), and personal resilience (self-efficacy and social connectedness) were associated with trauma and PTSD among 600 homeless young adults. Compared with those who had not experienced trauma, those who had were more likely to have been physically and/or sexually abused in childhood and physically victimized once homeless. Compared with those who had not experienced trauma, those who had experienced trauma and met criteria for PTSD were more likely to have been physically and/or sexually abused in childhood and physically and/or sexually victimized once homeless, and to have lower self-efficacy and social connectedness. Attention should be paid to these correlates of trauma and PTSD in developing and refining trauma-informed prevention and intervention approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to multiple forms of maltreatment during childhood is associated with serious mental health consequences among youth in the general population, but limited empirical attention has focused on homeless youth—a population with markedly high rates of childhood maltreatment followed by elevated rates of street victimization. This study investigated the rates of multiple childhood abuses (physical, sexual, and emotional abuse) and multiple street victimizations (robbery, physical assault, and sexual assault) and examined their relative relationships to mental health outcomes (meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision, criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression, and substance use disorder) among a large (N = 601) multisite sample of homeless youth. Approximately 79% of youth retrospectively reported multiple childhood abuses (two or more types) and 28% reported multiple street victimizations (two or more types). Each additional type of street victimization nearly doubled youths’ odds for meeting criteria for substance use disorder. Furthermore, each additional type of childhood abuse experienced more than doubled youths’ odds for meeting criteria for PTSD. Both multiple abuses and multiple street victimizations were associated with an approximate twofold increase in meeting depression criteria. Findings suggest the need for screening, assessment, and trauma-informed services for homeless youth who consider multiple types of abuse and victimization experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]