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Despite extensive global efforts, sub-Saharan Africa remains disproportionately affected by the HIV epidemic. This generalized epidemic can be seen in Lesotho which in 2014 the HIV prevalence rate of those aged 15-49 years was 24.6%, with and incidence of 1.9 new infections per 100-person-year exposures. To better understand the impact of Lesotho's national HIV response and significant predictors associated with HIV infection, the Lesotho Population-based HIV Impact Assessment was conducted. This survey provided a nationally representative sample of individuals aged 15-59 years old in which participants were tested for HIV and given an individual questionnaire that included socio-demographic and behavioral risk questions. The association of factors between survey questions and HIV incident was assessed using logistic regression. Multivariate logistic regression models for men and women were constructed for each outcome using variables known to be or plausibly associated with recent or chronic infection. Overall annualized incidence among people aged 15-49 was 1.19% (95% CI 0.73-1.65) per year. The overall prevalence of HIV was 25.6% with women having significantly higher prevalence. Multiple variables, including decreased wealth status, lower education levels, marital status, condom use at first sex, and circumcision (men only) were identified as being significantly associated with HIV infection for both men and women. In combination with improving the awareness of HIV status, an increased focus is needed on AGYW and men 35-49 years old to prevent new infections. HIV education and prevention programs should focus heavily on younger age groups prior to and soon after sexual debut to prevent HIV transmission. The findings of the survey showed significant room for improvement in increasing awareness of HIV status and reinforcing the need for continued HIV prevention and treatment efforts in Lesotho to prevent new infections., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objective: The Lesotho Population-based HIV Impact Assessment survey was conducted nationally and designed to measure HIV prevalence, incidence, and viral load suppression (VLS)., Design: A nationally representative sample of 9403 eligible households was surveyed between November 2016 and May 2017; analyses account for study design. Consenting participants provided blood samples, socio-demographic, and behavioral information., Methods: Blood samples were tested using the national rapid HIV testing algorithm. HIV-seropositive results were confirmed with Geenius supplemental assay. Screening for detectable concentrations of antiretroviral analytes was conducted on dried blood specimens from all HIV-positive adults using high-resolution liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Self-reported and/or antiretroviral biomarker data were used to classify individuals as HIV-positive and on treatment. Viral load testing was performed on all HIV-positive samples at central labs. VLS was defined as HIV RNA below 1000 copies/ml., Results: Overall, 25.6% of adults aged 15-59 years were HIV-positive. Among seropositive adults, 81.0% (male 76.6%, female 84.0%) reported knowing their HIV status, 91.8% of people living with HIV (male 91.6%, female 92.0%) who reported knowing their status reporting taking antiretrovirals, and 87.7% (male and female 87.7%) of these had VLS. Younger age was significantly associated with being less likely to be aware of HIV status for both sexes., Conclusions: Findings from this population-based survey provide encouraging data in terms of HIV testing and treatment uptake and coverage. Specific attention to reaching youth to engage them in HIV-related interventions are critical to achieving epidemic control.

Background: HIV acquisition remains high among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW, aged 15-24 years) in sub-Saharan Africa. We aimed to estimate prevalence and incidence of HIV in AGYW and to identify correlates of HIV infection by using data from the Lesotho Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (LePHIA)., Methods: LePHIA was a nationally representative survey of adults and children based on a multistage cluster sampling method with random selection of enumeration areas and households. All adults aged 15 years and older who had slept in the household the night before were eligible for participation; participants completed an interview and HIV testing. We estimated incidence with the HIV-1 limiting antigen avidity enzyme immunoassay combined with viral load and examined the association between demographic and behavioural variables (including characteristics of cohabitating mothers and sexual partners, when available) and prevalence and incidence among AGYW using logistic regression, incorporating survey weights., Findings: We interviewed 8824 households, including 2358 AGYW who were tested for HIV infection. Weighted HIV prevalence was 11·1% (95% CI 9·7-12·5) in the overall population (273 of 2358 AGYW), 5·7% (4·1-7·2) in adolescent girls aged 15-19 years (64 of 1156), and 16·7% (14·4-19·0) in women aged 20-24 years (209 of 1212). Annualised HIV incidence was 1·8% (0·8-2·8). Correlates of prevalent infection include reporting a history of anal sex (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 3·08, 1·11-8·57), having lived outside Lesotho in the past year (1·86, 1·01-3·42), having a partner suspected or known to be HIV positive (11·7, 6·0-22·5), and having two or more lifetime sexual partners (1·84, 1·21-2·78, for 2-3 lifetime sexual partners; 2·44, 1·45-4·08, for ≥4 lifetime sexual partners). For the 570 AGYW living with their mothers, maternal education was negatively associated with HIV prevalence in their daughters (aOR 0·36, 0·15-0·82, per increase in level attended). For AGYW with a cohabitating partner, the factors associated with AGYW infection were partner age (OR 4·54, 1·30-15·80, for partners aged 35-49 years, although the OR was no longer significant when adjusted for HIV status of partner), HIV status (aOR 11·22, 4·05-31·05), lack of viral load suppression (OR 0·16, 0·04-0·66), and partner employment in the past year (aOR 3·41, 1·12-10·42)., Interpretation: The findings confirm the importance of improving the treatment cascade in male partners and targeting preventive interventions to AGYW who are at increased risk. A regional approach to prevention could mitigate the effect of migration on transnational spread of HIV., Funding: President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: A previous analysis of the impact of drought in Africa on HIV demonstrated an 11% greater prevalence in HIV-endemic rural areas attributable to local rainfall shocks. The Lesotho Population-Based HIV Impact Assessment (LePHIA) was conducted after the severe drought of 2014-2016, allowing for reevaluation of this relationship in a setting of expanded antiretroviral coverage., Methods and Findings: LePHIA selected a nationally representative sample between November 2016 and May 2017. All adults aged 15-59 years in randomly selected households were invited to complete an interview and HIV testing, with one woman per household eligible to answer questions on their experience of sexual violence. Deviations in rainfall for May 2014-June 2016 were estimated using precipitation data from Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station Data (CHIRPS), with drought defined as <15% of the average rainfall from 1981 to 2016. The association between drought and risk behaviors as well as HIV-related outcomes was assessed using logistic regression, incorporating complex survey weights. Analyses were stratified by age, sex, and geography (urban versus rural). All of Lesotho suffered from reduced rainfall, with regions receiving 1%-36% of their historical rainfall. Of the 12,887 interviewed participants, 93.5% (12,052) lived in areas that experienced drought, with the majority in rural areas (7,281 versus 4,771 in urban areas). Of the 835 adults living in areas without drought, 520 were in rural areas and 315 in urban. Among females 15-19 years old, living in a rural drought area was associated with early sexual debut (odds ratio [OR] 3.11, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.43-6.74, p = 0.004), and higher HIV prevalence (OR 2.77, 95% CI 1.19-6.47, p = 0.02). It was also associated with lower educational attainment in rural females ages 15-24 years (OR 0.44, 95% CI 0.25-0.78, p = 0.005). Multivariable analysis adjusting for household wealth and sexual behavior showed that experiencing drought increased the odds of HIV infection among females 15-24 years old (adjusted OR [aOR] 1.80, 95% CI 0.96-3.39, p = 0.07), although this was not statistically significant. Migration was associated with 2-fold higher odds of HIV infection in young people (aOR 2.06, 95% CI 1.25-3.40, p = 0.006). The study was limited by the extensiveness of the drought and the small number of participants in the comparison group., Conclusions: Drought in Lesotho was associated with higher HIV prevalence in girls 15-19 years old in rural areas and with lower educational attainment and riskier sexual behavior in rural females 15-24 years old. Policy-makers may consider adopting potential mechanisms to mitigate the impact of income shock from natural disasters on populations vulnerable to HIV transmission., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.