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The eighteenth century was characterised by a ferment of ideas and activities which have usually been portrayed as masculine. It is now increasingly perceived that such developments travelled further through society than hitherto generally recognised. Even women participated in "enlightened living", despite gendered limitations on education, travel and work. In various ways women took advantage of the emphasis on the social arts in which they could excel and the increasing number of ways of learning about arts, science and culture. Some even became leaders in "enlightened" ventures from which, ostensibly, women were mostly excluded. Drawing heavily on the letters and published works of a number of women, this article will explore how some women not only managed to participate in the travel of ideas in England from c.1750 to 1800, but also disseminated them or even contributed ideas of their own. (Contains 103 footnotes.)

In this article, questions of public education in both environmental issues and science, more broadly, are examined in an effort to respond to Richard Aldrich’s call for historians of education to use their skills and understanding both to inform the present and to shape a more enlightened future. In particular, the lives and work of three women in science – Marianne North, Rachel Carson and Alice Stewart – are investigated through their art, writings and actions and through autobiographical and biographical material. The focus is on issues of natural history, the environment and the use and misuse of technology arising from their scientific work. In each case, how far they challenged the scientific thinking of their day or extended public understanding is explored while consideration is also made of how they were educated for their scientific careers, what impediments they faced and how far and in what ways they overcame them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: the belief that women and science, including mathematics and medicine, are incompatible has had a long and complex history and still often works to exclude women from and/or marginalise them in science. Purpose: this article will seek to explore gender and educational achievement through investigating how such gendered presumptions have persisted at various levels of science, despite perceptions of science itself changing over time and scientific studies expanding, differentiating and becoming professionalized. In particular, after a brief discussion of the historical debates on the provenance and lasting recurrence of gendered assumptions in science, it will try to discover how these prejudices affected the education of girls and women in England from c.1910 to c. 1939 and then, to widen the picture, make some comparison with the USA in the same period, although, necessarily in an article of this length, this analysis will be somewhat cursory. It will then bring the history up-to-date by examining the situation in England today. Sources of evidence:the article will proceed by using extensive local sources in case study research on Birmingham, by then the second largest English city. The comparisons with the situation in the USA in the same period and the examination of the present situation will be based largely on secondary sources. Main argument: factors of location, family background, supportive networks and greater educational, political and employment rights will be shown to have allowed some women to break through the barriers that hindered many from accessing or rising in science. Thus, it will be seen through the Birmingham example that there was a growing yet limited field of scientific practice for women, ordered by a gendered philosophy which routed them into specific areas. This picture was further permeated by class, wealth, identity, contacts, networks and location albeit this was modified by the scholarship system. Comparisons with the USA show that similar factors were present there, albeit in a different context. Twenty-first century sources indicate that on the one hand there is still gendered access and progress for females in science in England yet, on the other hand, there have been, and are at present, a number of initiatives seeking to overcome this. Conclusion: Even today, therefore, whatever sciences females do is affected by underlying gendered assumptions and structural power relationships which need to be understood. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Examining the evolution of medical education for women in a major city, this paper details the combination of private and public initiative, and the role of nonconformist denominational networks in Birmingham, one of the largest industrial and commercial centres of the British Empire. From the 1880s women gradually gained access to both higher education and professional training in medicine. This was necessarily underpinned by the growth of school science for girls. In this, the role of the new endowed and proprietary schools for girls was very significant in Birmingham but that of the School Board and LEA was also important, not least in demonstrating class and gendered attitudes in education and medicine. In theory from the 1880s and 1890s it was possible even for girls from elementary schools to proceed by way of scholarship both to secondary school and to university. Such educational opportunities expanded in early twentieth-century Birmingham yet always remained slimmer for girls. From 1900 the new university ostensibly gave equal rights to women in medical education as in all other studies. The university itself had grown out of local interests and patronage and saw itself as serving the local community. Birmingham’s liberal leaders believed in scientific education and social reform, including greater equality between the sexes, although contemporary cultural and social currents could militate against such high aspirations. Nevertheless, the university did take a lead in opening up medicine to women, allowing participation in professional life, for some at the highest levels, and serving the local city and regional community. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The eighteenth century was characterised by a ferment of ideas and activities which have usually been portrayed as masculine. It is now increasingly perceived that such developments travelled further through society than hitherto generally recognised. Even women participated in 'enlightened living', despite gendered limitations on education, travel and work. In various ways women took advantage of the emphasis on the social arts in which they could excel and the increasing number of ways of learning about arts, science and culture. Some even became leaders in 'enlightened' ventures from which, ostensibly, women were mostly excluded. Drawing heavily on the letters and published works of a number of women, this article will explore how some women not only managed participate in the travel of ideas in England from c.1750 to1800, but also disseminated them or even contributed ideas of their own. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigates the interrelationship between science and the ideas of gender. Definition of the term 'science'; Concept of gender by feminine philosophers and historians; Elucidation on the neglect by historians of education on gender conceptualization; Methods that reveal the discovery of the roles of women in scientific history; Case studies on Dame Hilda Rose and Mary Somerville.