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A framework has been developed for an archeological predictive model based on demonstrated relations among multiple geologic variables (e.g., topography, geochronology, rock type, geomorphology) for 81 previously identified cultural resource sites across diverse desert terrain. Results indicated that the most useful variables are deposit type, piedmont setting, geometric form, deposit age, surface age, desert pavement, surface horizon, and strongest subsoil horizon. Traditional sources for geologic and soil data available to most military installations are of low resolution or are incomplete. Rapid and cost-effective methods for collecting these data in desert terrains will be required to advance and implement archeological predictive models. The new model was applied initially to desert terrain conditions at the US Army National Training Center, Fort Irwin, CA, but it has potential for application across military lands throughout the southwestern US where as much as 80% of the holdings have not been inventoried for cultural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority are linked by common aquifers that have been subject to over-drafting, contamination, and negotiation. The Israelis used military force to secure the Jordan River watershed in 1964 and 1967. The environmental security of the region's scarce water resources has become a contentious issue and an impediment to regional development because the three countries have been unable to develop protocols for managing their water. The expanding populations of Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority have created an unprecedented demand for additional potable water needed to sustain life, maintain sanitation, and irrigation for agriculture. Desalination of seawater using reverse osmosis will likely emerge as a major source, but it requires significant capital outlay and energy. Management of water resources has emerged as a national priority upon which each country sees its survival depending. Armed conflicts and sporadic clashes will continue if the issue is not resolved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A descriptive groundwater model was constructed for Camp Shelby and its environs to understand the relationships between surface hydrology, military training, water supply aquifers, and civilian encroachment around the site. The model was based upon data from over 1200 permitted water wells. Main results were that: (i) most of the site is underlain by a clay-rich buffer having low hydraulic conductivity that would prevent significant aquifer contamination by surface activities; (ii) wetland water tables are controlled by this buffer and are not interconnected with water supply aquifers; (iii) most water wells are screened in confined aquifers at depths of 100-750 ft below ground surface; (iv) these laterally discontinuous aquifers are separated by clayey units and are not interconnected; and (v) the water pressures in the deep aquifer under the eastern part of the site, determined from potentiometric surface difference maps, declined as much as 150 ft over the last 40 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 20th century, armies conducted many major operations in areas without enough surface water to meet operational requirements. Geologists were used in World War I to locate and develop groundwater resources by deep drilling. More recently, locating groundwater sources in the Saudi desert during the Gulf War was made possible by using geological expertise. In the Balkans, geologists were employed to locate and develop groundwater for peacekeeping operation base camps. Groundwater is often ideal for these semi-permanent installations, housing thousands of troops, because wells require little maintenance and well yields generally remain constant over time. When comparing drinking water sources, groundwater has advantages over both surface water, which requires treatment, and bottled water, which is prohibitive in terms of both cost and logistical requirements. Groundwater will continue to be a critical source of water for military operations in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solution cavities and caves at a variety of scales were analyzed within a GIS to quantify their spatial heterogeneity and to evaluate potential geologic controls on their distribution. Techniques were first established on robust datasets of small pores taken from photographs of limestone in core and outcrop. Pore density maps and histograms of pore area proved highly effective in identifying horizons of enhanced dissolution that fall along linear trends parallel to stratigraphic layering. The technique proved equally effective for a complex network of man-made caves, suggesting that geospatial analysis can identify specific geologic horizons of localized cave development. When combined with lithologic maps and structural interpretation, these trends of high cave frequency may serve as potential targets for locating undiscovered caves in rugged terrain, an important mission confronting coalition forces in Afghanistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intervisibility algorithms, when applied to digital elevation models, are used to compute line-of-sight, weapons fans or viewsheds, and accurate threedimensional perspective views. Whereas data quality, atmospheric effects, vegetation, and buildings contribute to the final result, the geometric model has a major impact. Seven geometric parameters should be explicitly defined: Viewer and target locations, interpretation of viewshed, point interpolation, point selection along radials, viewshed creation, vertical earth curvature, and horizontal earth curvature. The importance of horizontal earth curvature - the determination of straight line distance between observer and target - has not been sufficiently appreciated. Unless Universal Transverse Mercator approximations are valid, geodetic computations should be used. Because digital elevation models available to the military typically have a geographicbased point spacing, many established procedures that implicitly assume a conformal Universal Transverse Mercator grid introduce errors. A spaced radial algorithm produces the best weapons fans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Military activities cause physical alteration of landscapes that can provide geomorphologists unique opportunities to better understand natural processes. Today's desert pavement in western Arizona exhibits scars from 1940s era tracked vehicle maneuvers. This study examines the impact of these military maneuvers with particular attention to an unexpected field observation of deeper soil moisture penetration beneath scarred pavement than under undisturbed pavement, a condition that appears contradictory to results of previous work. Field work and backscatter electron microscopy images reveal destruction of the Av horizon and fractured soil plasma near the surface under track scars; this fracturing promotes soil moisture penetration relative to the naturally indurated, compact, surface material of undisturbed pavement. Increasing moisture penetration of the subsurface may encourage plant growth and have consequences to the ecological functioning of a largely barren landform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of military training on Army installations focuses extensively on vehicle impact, and foot traffic impact is not well documented. At the US Military Academy, West Point, NY, foot traffic impact was modeled using three functions (logistical growth, Gamma, and Wiebull) and field and laboratory data. The modeled data were compared to the actual condition of the soil in the Bataan Bayonet Assault Course, indicating a moderate level of compaction at the end of summer training. Bulk density, mean infiltration rates, and soil resistance were also compared, also indicating a moderate impact on soil compaction. The average infiltration rate decreased while the bearing capacity increased during the training cycle. The results indicate that the soil recovers moderately during the subsequent freeze-thaw cycle. This model has potential for greater application for predicting soil conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to identify and analyze the significance of Russia's terrain and geography during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. Like Napoleon's army before them, the Germans were unable to overcome geography and destroy the Russian army. Russia's geography created delaying actions, depriving the attacker of the effective application of mass, economy, concentration, and movement. Many serious errors were committed by the German command: Among the most serious of them was the supposition that the entire structure of the Soviet regime would topple after the first defeats of the Red Army. The Russian colossus could afford to withdraw troops and sacrifice entire geographic regions. Without destruction of Russia's army, a victory was not possible. In the end, geography mounted an effective and conclusive defense of Fortress Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During World War II the German army developed the largest organization to be used by any nation to contribute military applications of earth science in wartime. In the summer of 1940 two of its military geologist "groups" as well as units of military geographers focused their activities on preparations for Operation Sealion - the cross-Channel invasion of England, planned to be the greatest amphibious assault to that time in world history. The German military geographic service generated topographic maps and target appraisals, and the military geology units produced specialist geotechnical maps which analyzed the terrain of southeast England in terms of coastal geomorphology, water supply, construction materials, and cross-country trafficability. British victory in the aerial Battle of Britain led to cancellation of Sealion in late September 1940, but the maps (similar in category to those prepared for the Allied cross- Channel invasion of Normandy in June 1944) were preserved amongst archive documents seized by American forces at the end of the war. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the American Civil War, geology and physiography figured prominently in military activities in southwestern Virginia. In this region, strategic mineral operations and the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, all crucial to the Confederate war effort, drew the interest of Union commanders throughout the war. In the spring of 1864, Union Major General George Crook and his Army of the Kanawha conducted a campaign against the railroad that resulted in the Battles of Cloyds Mountain and the New River Bridge. Terrain profoundly impacted this expedition, both at the operational and tactical levels. Simply to reach and return from its targets, Crook's army had to cross the rugged mountains of the Appalachian Plateaus and Valley and Ridge. At the tactical scale, geologic formations and structures created the topography over which the troops fought, and local terrain elements such as ridges and valleys, drainage, and karst features were important factors in the battles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regional and local geology exerted a very strong influence on the outcome of the Chickamauga Campaign of September 1863. The Union Army of the Cumberland met the Confederate Army of Tennessee at the Battle of Chickamauga in north Georgia. Topography of the Cumberland Plateau and Valley and Ridge Provinces of the Appalachian Mountains determined the movement of troops. General George Thomas was almost trapped in the confined anticline of McLemore's Cove. The opposing forces met near Chickamauga Creek in an area underlain by Ordovician carbonates. The Battle of Chickamauga can be related to differences in topography that are directly connected to differences in lithologies within these rocks. Thus, the maneuvers of armies prior to the Battle of Chickamauga and the battle itself were largely determined by both regional and local geology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The affects of dissected limestone terrain on the use and effectiveness of field artillery during the American Civil War are shown using examples taken from the Battle of Perryville, KY, a duel between artillery batteries and for artillery positions. Smoothbore weapons were more effective over shorter wavelength, more dissected terrain, whereas modern rifled cannon proved to be more advantageous over longer wavelength, more open terrain. Terrain-based optical illusions also had a significant affect on the outcome of the battle. These influences are illustrated using different methods of visualization and analysis based on a 30-ft-resolution raster digital elevation model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The closing battle of the War of 1812 occurred on the floodplain of the Mississippi River 7 mi south of New Orleans. Strategically, control of New Orleans determined control of the Mississippi River and, by extension, most of the western territory. Tactically there were six approaches to the city. All had some geographic disadvantage, mostly relating to the disparity between the draft of the vessels available to the British and the water depths in the various lakes, channels, and bayous. The eventual choice of approach via Lake Borgne and Bayou Bienvenue placed the invading army in logistical peril as all supplies had to be ferried over long distances in small, open boats. The battleground itself was beset with a number of obstacles of a physical geographic nature such as a shallow depth to water table, inadequate cover, poor soils, and unseasonable weather. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atlantic Coastal Plain geology impacted Continental and British strategy in many ways prior to the Battle of Eutaw Springs during summer 1781. The elevation of the Upper Coastal Plain High Hills of Santee influenced General Nathanael Greene to encamp his Continental army there to gain relief from the heat, humidity, and diseases associated with the adjacent Middle Coastal Plain swamps. The strategic advantage offered by high ground inside a large Middle Coastal Plain meander lobe of the Congaree River influenced Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Stewart to encamp his British force there in anticipation that Greene would attack from across the river and swamps. However, Greene marched around the swamps because the sandy roads facilitated advancement. To avoid being trapped, Stewart moved to high ground at Eutaw Springs, where a stream emerging from a cave in the Santee Limestone provided abundant fresh water and nearby Coastal Plain terraces offered fresh food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Campaign and Battle of Saratoga (19 September-7 October 1777) serves as a valuable case study from which one can gain a better understanding of the critical geographic factors affecting Continental Army commanders during operations against Lieutenant General John Burgoyne's British Army at the micro and macro geographic levels. The Battle of Saratoga illustrates the impact that the physical and cultural landscapes have on the outcome of battle at each of these scales of analysis. The analysis used historical data, digital elevation data, vertical photos, and battlefield observations to illustrate these aspects of the battle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Hudson Highlands were the key terrain of the American War of Independence. The Highlands form a 15 mi wide barrier bisecting the lower river valley; West Point is the most dominating position. Initial Colonial efforts at fortification were unsound and all but ignored West Point; the Colonists fortified Constitution Island, overlooking West Point's commanding position. This historical military geography uses maps, historical records, and a digital elevation model to examine the fortifications at West Point and evaluate their effectiveness. The results indicate that from the river perspective, it is easy to incorrectly infer that Constitution Island was key terrain; however, positions there are dominated by terrain on either bank, by West Point in particular. Furthermore, batteries positioned on Constitution Island are masked by West Point and lack range to control effectively the river bend. Conversely, fortifications on West Point easily dominate Constitution Island and the all-important bend in the river. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Topography, restricted surface water supply, and cave use for refuge and ambush afford strategic offensive and defensive advantages to native combatants familiar with the surface and underground terrain, and pose tactical problems for unfamiliar foreign forces. The Maroon Wars of 1690- 1796 pitted numerically superior British forces against organized bands of escapee slaves and others in the classic tropical karst of Jamaica's Cockpit Country. In this complex landscape of rugged conical hills surrounding deep sinkholes, British efforts to engage and subdue their antagonists were largely unsuccessful, while they suffered mounting casualties from guerrilla attacks. Ultimately, the British adopted a strategy of attrition and containment, selected deforestation, and bombardment, forcing Maroon withdrawal. The British established a road cordon around the Cockpit Country and limited Maroon access to water supplies. In 1796, weakened by measles, the Maroons agreed to duplicitous peace terms. Vestiges of the conflicts remain, particularly in Cockpit Country place names. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the American War of Independence (1775-83), the Hudson Highlands were a focus of military activity as both the Continental and British forces struggled to gain control of the Hudson River. Continental and British commanders alike recognized the strategic importance of the waterway as a major thoroughfare into the interior of the Colonies, as a vital link between New England and the Middle-Atlantic, and as the major connector between New York harbor and Canada. West Point was regarded as the most decisive locale throughout the entire Hudson Valley because of its commanding position along the banks of the river. This paper is an example of historical military geography that focuses on understanding how the physical geography of the region influenced military decisions and activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Second Punic War, in 218 BC, the route Hannibal followed from the Rhône River to the Alps is subject to some controversy. A reconnaissance undertaken in summer 2002 assessed the most likely invasion route as across the Col de Grîmone to the area around Gap in the Durance River Basin, thence east along the Guil River that would take the Carthaginians to the Col de la Traversette, the main alpine pass north of Mt. Viso. Once into the upper Guil Valley, Hannibal encountered snow and firnpack, both formidable physical and psychological barriers. However, on the lee side, a rockfall blocked his passage below the 2800 m contour. Employing the ingenious strategy of ordering trees felled, timber laced around boulders and set alight, it took three days to clear a passage through the rockfall so that his starving army could wind its way along the Po River to the fertile plains below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Military geography enjoyed some level of popularity in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In Canada, though, no systematic and deliberate attempt was ever made in that direction. This is largely because most of the thinking in that field was already done by others: Great Britain until World War II, and the US later on. The Canadian Army and Air Force took a large part in the surveying and mapping of the country, particularly in the vast northern areas. The Canadian Forces are still very good at mapping today, but geography is nearly absent from the curriculum at the Royal Military College, and trained geographers are hard to find at the Department of National Defence. This paper's first objective is to present a survey of the relationship between military and geography in Canada since the Confederation of 1867, and then to try to explain the Canadians' disregard for military geography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geographic patterns of warfare have changed greatly in the past 200 years. The development of the technology of warfare and the influence of technology on tactics in the 19th century resulted in a more extensive geography of tactical warfare. Pre-Napoleonic armies were largely constrained by relatively shortrange weapons and limited command control to be tactically linear. This began to change at about the time of the Napoleonic Wars. By the end of the 19th century, increases in army size, weapons range, rate of fire, and accuracy led to both a lengthening and thickening of linear tactical forms and also an increasing use of terrain features and field entrenchments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of man-made underground environments for military operations is reported back to about 5500 BP, although the use of natural caves for defensive purposes must date back much further. Regardless of precisely when mankind first used underground terrain for military purposes, this use has continued, and has had a remarkably successful and noteworthy history. It is the contention of this author that military use of naturally occurring or manmade space underground has been underrated in its contribution to sustained military operations. Retaliatory strikes in Afghanistan subsequent to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the US have demonstrated the strategic as well as the tactical importance of underground terrain, and as such, have shown that its military use is now more important than it has ever been on a global scale, and may soon challenge outer space as the pivotal battlefield of the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Military geography is a broad and dynamic subject with boundaries that can be difficult to delineate clearly and that change with time and circumstance. The two key fundamental aspects of military geography at all spatial scales are the physical and cultural landscapes. This paper considers the military operating environment as the foundation of military geography and illustrates the importance of the physical and cultural landscapes at different spatial scales to military operations in war. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of military geology and geography assists commanders in shaping the conduct of battles. At the strategic level, this same knowledge provides a context to better understand the implications of landforms and climate, and the cultural landscape in which forces must operate. It also assists senior national leaders in understanding the overarching impact of distance in determining the ability of military forces to wage wars thousands of miles from the United States or their overseas home bases. At the same time as 21st century leaders prepare their forces to engage in combat, they are expected to act as sensitive stewards of the worldwide installations from which their forces are launched. They must not only support the maintenance and repair of the facilities at these installations but also provide for, under US and foreign environmental laws and policies, the protection and enhancement of the thousands of acres of natural environment at these locations and the diverse species that inhabit them. They must know and understand the non-battle landscape that surrounds them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]